Halloween KO Frankenstein :: Free Essays Online

Halloween KO FrankensteinFade in Amidst the crowd and noise of a swarm of children and their parents in a whirlwind, last-minute attack to find Halloween costumes and makeup, Kenneth Branagh and Helena Bonham Carter-Branagh stand hand and handpinned against an Austin Powers suit and the ever-popular Hershey Kiss garb. Kenneths brows are furrowed and a small wrinkle on his forehead is tense with concern as to how he is going to find anything among the crowds. The door to the store opens occasionally, inviting the crisp October air insending small chills up his and Helenas arms. Helena, standing impatiently in a crimson shawl, weight on one side, looks up at her husband, lips pursedannoyance dancing in her chocolate eyes.Helena Remind me why were here again, Kenny?Kenneth Oh honeyyou know the partys tomorrow and we couldnt show up without costumes.deuce noisy youngsters, each with unruly black hair, sucking lollypops run past Kenneth and into Helenaigniting a surge of pain down h er side. The children mutter an untranslatable defective before continuing off to look at the sets of fake blood to Helenas direct left.Helena (rubbing her thigh) I knowbut why are we here? I mean we have personal assistants to take care of these kinds of things.Kenneth Dear, I thought it would be fun. After all, we havent had a night out together since I started touring with the Shakespearean Company again.Voices from the crowd yell Heads Up just as a shelf full of goliaths Teeth and Spirit Gum tumbles on Helena from above. A small, freckled girl with straw colored pig-tails points at Helena with a squatty finger.Girl (sardonically) We said...HEADS UPIgnoring the pain in her leg, Helena rubs her forehead while pulling a pair of green Monster Teeth out of her tangle curls. Helena (mumbles to Kenneth) Fun. . .right. . .Kenneth (tugging on their laced hands) Come dear, lets go ask the lady at the counter so we can leave and go get any(prenominal) sleep. I dont want to have bags under my eyes tomorrow in front of our Hollywood friends.Weaving through the crowds of people, Kenneth spots a store clerk wearing a Hello my name is Sarah nametag standing behind a short female customer.Kenneth Excuse me?. . .uh, excuse meSarah looks up at Kenneth, squinting viciously in his direction.

The Empire Strikes Back Essay -- French Revolution, French Society

Frances revolution of 1789-1799 destroyed the age-old monarchy, eliminated aristocratic privilege, and established the inalienable rights of each citizens. Dedication to the ideals of equality and freedom for all men is enshrined in the national motto, libert, galite, fraternit. Regardless of Frances longstanding commitment to the principles of liberty, contemporary social attitudes and policies have locomote far from the revolutionary ideal, particularly vis--vis Frances burgeoning population of immigrants and their descendants. Despite its extensive and tortuous history of immigration, twenty-first century France remains vehemently committed to modify notions of citizenship and national belonging. Frances persistent refusal to acknowledge its de-facto multiculturalism has created a brutal cycle of marginalization, in which ethnic minorities are prevented from expressing their cultural identities and successfully integrating into mainstream French society.Immigrants from the Maghreb a hilly, arid region in North Africa situated between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea represent the largest segment of Frances considerable ethnic population. France is shortly home to over 3.5 million foreigners, more than a million of whom are Magrbins, primarily from Algeria and Morocco (Sekher 25). Contemporary Magrbin immigration began in earnest in the geezerhood following World War II. After defeating Germany, the United States launched an ambitious program to revitalize the devastated economies of Western Europe and create dynamic markets for mass-produced American consumer goods. From 1948-1951, The European Recovery Program, commonly known as the Marshall Plan, provided unprecedented levels of developm... ...ologist Franois Dubet notes, Une socit construite sur une galit des chances parfaitement juste pourrait, en mme temps, tre parfaitement ingalitaire (qtd. in Rosello 237). To provide picky benefits to minorits visibles would undermine t he egalitarian ideal of republican assimilation by treating them as more than equals. Such reverse discrimination would represent an unacceptable violate of the sacred credo of libert, galite, fraternit. Hence, minorits visibles generally receive an insufficient level of social spending, with derelict public housing projects and minimal welfare payments the only programs soon providing benefits (Smith 176). Continued adherence to outdated concepts of citizenship therefore facilitates the separate and unequal treatment of minorits visibles by concealing persecution under the guise of official equality.

The Afro-American Newspaper Goes to War :: United States History African American Essays

The Afro-American Newspaper Goes to WarThe Baltimore-based newspaper The Afro-American has been in existence since 1892 infra the proprietorship of the Murphy family, and by the 1940s had forged a place at the forefront of African-American journalism. The newspaper is still in business immediately and is online at www.afro.com. Founded by John Murphy, a former slave, the Afro-American has grown from a church weekly to one of the nations leading shocking newspapers. The newspaper has utilize its column inches to campaign for the civil rights of African-Americans throughout the 20th century, from opposing the persistence of racist Jim Crow laws in the South to defending eminent figures much(prenominal) as W.E. DuBois and Paul Robeson during the McCarthy-era anti-communism of the 1950s.1 During World War 2, when the U.S. military was still segregated along racial lines The Afro-American sent correspondents to cover the fighting alongside the various black American units that serv ed in both the European and Pacific theatres. These men and one woman were relaying to an audience of Maryland and Washington D.C. African Americans the roles fulfilled by black American troops, fighting in a segregated military abroad. The primary impact of black and white Americans serving together was to be mat up socially in the post-war years. The Civil Rights movement that gained momentum in the 1950s owed much to the fact that many people engaged in war snip during the 1940s, who in peacetime would never interact with one another on grounds of race, were challenged by their shared wartime experiences. The common danger, the common foe and hardships of battle are deliverance American troops closer togetherSoldier after soldier has told me he can never be narrow-minded again after sightedness such widespread human suffering.2 Ollie Stewart, correspondent for The Afro American, 1944 Compared with the quality of contemporary reports filed by embedded reporters in the 21st cen tury US military, filtered by both the Pentagon and study media networks, some of the copy from the Afro correspondents is surprising given the circumstances under which it was filed. Despite the circumstances of war the reports filed by Afro correspondents used a number of means to engender the reality of service in a segregated military without alarming the wartime censors, and did so with deep insight, humour and graphic accounts of the full spectrum of roles fulfilled by black service personnel. The Correspondents. Correspondents for the Afro American.

Violence Essay -- Handguns Firearms Essays

ViolenceSkills & Science of DoctoringBy now images of horror and alarm like the one of students and teachers crying at Buell Elementary have become all-too-common. As we reel once again from the terrible thought that an innocent manner has been taken and it was a child who pulled the trigger, we should be vigilant for the next event, which is becoming equally predictable As public health professionals, we are trained to look important questions so we can treat both the symptoms and root causes of a sickness. We will give a child medicine for a fever, but likewise antibiotics for the microorganism causing the illness. The question to ask when diagnosing this tragedy is a simple one Where did a seven-year-old boy get a loaded wedge? (Physicians)Many physicians feel that they do not have a direct influence on preventing violence. Yet, as patient advocates, it is often physicians who have the best probability to intercede on the behalf of patients in potentially violent circumstan ces. Numerous paradigms of violence exist, and it may be difficult for the physician to cover the range of issues productively and expeditiously in a single visit. Instead, the physician may wish to confront these topics over a series of visits to best assess the patients willingness to controvert these issues and act in the recommended manner. This paper serves not only to bring to light issues of violence with which a physician may be presented, but also provides a model for discussing these issues with patients to best provide preventative techniques.Historically, violence has been dealt with by local communities and governmental agencies. However, recent studies show that the propensity towards violence begins in ones childhood. Specifically... .... Aug 1998, 152(8) 749-56.Kaplan, Sandra J. MD Family Violence A Clinical and Legal Guide. American Psychiatric Press, Inc. Washington, DC 1996.Newberger, Eli H. Child Abuse. Violence in America A habitual wellness Appr oach. Oxford University Press. NY 1991.Physicians for Social Responsibility Violence Prevention. onlineweb. www.psr.orgPublic Housing Drug Elimination Program Gun Buyback Violence Reduction Initiative. Join Together Online. onlineweb. www.jointogether.org research Reveals Links Between Substance Abuse and Gun Violence. Join Together Online. onlineweb. www.jointogether.orgRosenberg, Mark L. & Mercy, James A. Assaultive Violence. Violence in America A Public Health Approach. Oxford University Press. NY 1991.Stop Handgun Violence. onlineweb. www.stophandgunviolence.com

Executing the Innocent :: capital punishment essays

The risk of executing gratuitous persons is a decisive objection to the institution of capital punishment in the coupled States. Consequentialist arguments for the death punishment are inconclusive at best the strongest justification is a retributive one. However, this argument is seriously undercut if a significant risk of executing the righteous exists. Any criminal justice system carries the risk of punishing innocent persons, but the punishment of death is unique and requires greater precautions. Retributive justifications for the death punishment are grounded in respect for innocent victims of homicide but accepting serious risks of mistaken executions demonstrates disrespect for innocent human life. United States Supreme Court decisions of the 1990s (Coleman v. Thompson and Herrara v. Collins) illustrate the existence of serious risk and suggest some explanations for it. I live in a city (Philadelphia, PA) whose District Attorney seeks the death penalisation more often, and with greater success, than any other D.A. in the United States. In Philadelphia, as elsewhere in the U.S., the majority of defendants in capital trials are poor, and desire on court appointed defense lawyers paid by the local jurisdiction. It is no coincidence that a city which sends large numbers of convicted murderers to death actors line has an unusually impoverished system for representing indigent defendants. According to Tina Rosenberg, where private attorneys routinely charge $50,000 to defend a capital case, Philadelphia pays court-appointed lawyers a $1700 flat fee for education and $400 for each day in court. The executive administrator of Philadelphias courts reckons that this averages $3519 a case.(1)Those numbers help to explain why District Attorney Lynn Abrahams department has much(prenominal) a high percentage of homicide defendants sentenced to death. They also suggest that Philadelphia runs an especially great risk of sending to death row some persons who are innocent of the evil for which they were convicted. But why does Philadelphia ask for the death penalty so oftenin Rosenbergs words, virtually as often as the law will throw in? (320) D.A. Abraham says that she considers herself the representative of the victim and the victims family, and that the death penalty is the right thing to do for them. (321) This is essentially a retributive rationale for capital punishment.The risk of executing innocent human beings is the focus of this paper. I believe that this risk is so significant that it constitutes a decisive reason for the abolition of capital punishment in the United States.

Executing the Innocent :: capital punishment essays

The risk of executing ingenuous persons is a decisive objection to the institution of majuscule punishment in the United States. Consequentialist arguments for the ending penalty are inconclusive at best the strongest justification is a punitive one. However, this argument is seriously slash if a significant risk of executing the innocent exists. Any criminal justice system carries the risk of punishing innocent persons, but the punishment of finale is unique and requires greater precautions. Retributive justifications for the death penalty are grounded in respect for innocent victims of homicide but accepting serious risks of mistaken executions demonstrates disrespect for innocent human life. United States Supreme Court decisions of the 1990s (Coleman v. Thompson and Herrara v. Collins) illustrate the existence of serious risk and suggest some explanations for it. I live in a city (Philadelphia, PA) whose District Attorney seeks the death penalty more often, and with greater success, than any other D.A. in the United States. In Philadelphia, as elsewhere in the U.S., the majority of defendants in capital trials are poor, and rely on court appointed defense lawyers paid by the local jurisdiction. It is no coincidence that a city which sends large numbers of convicted murderers to death row has an unusually impoverished system for representing indigent defendants. According to Tina Rosenberg, where private attorneys routinely charge $50,000 to defend a capital case, Philadelphia pays court-appointed lawyers a $1700 flat fee for preparation and $400 for each day in court. The executive administrator of Philadelphias courts reckons that this averages $3519 a case.(1)Those numbers help to apologise why District Attorney Lynn Abrahams department has such a high percentage of homicide defendants sentenced to death. They also suggest that Philadelphia runs an especially great risk of sending to death row some persons who are innocent of the crime for which the y were convicted. But why does Philadelphia ask for the death penalty so oftenin Rosenbergs words, virtually as often as the law will allow? (320) D.A. Abraham says that she considers herself the representative of the victim and the victims family, and that the death penalty is the right thing to do for them. (321) This is essentially a retributive rationale for capital punishment.The risk of executing innocent human beings is the focus of this paper. I believe that this risk is so significant that it constitutes a decisive tenability for the abolition of capital punishment in the United States.

Youth and Economic Development in the 21st Century Africa

younker and frugal suppuration in the 21st Century Africa By Ikechukwu D. Ikerionwu Dept. of Peace & Conflict Studies, University of Massachusetts, Lo comfortably, USA. Preamble In the context of two-year-old and frugal development, leadership is a multi-layered phenomenon char fermenterized by two main features 1. The sparing ch on the wholeenges facing African schooldaysboyish person warrant responsible leadership by g everyplacenments and world(prenominal) partners 2. As leaders, early days can themselves do an important role in the promotion of stinting development.This paper seeks to trade these aspects of leadership by exploring seven main issues of economic development that atomic lean 18 central to the well-being of early days in Africa preparation and study utilization and migration entrepreneurship entryway to information and communication technology health and human immunodeficiency virus/ back up environmental and sustainable livelihoods and particip ation in economic decision-making. The paper looks in particular at how governments spend a penny responded, how international partners have defyed exertions, and how callowness themselves are taking the lead in crying these issues.The main message is clear spell African governments are progressively putting littleish concerns at the embrace of the development agenda, a lot much(prenominal) remains to be d ane. Both governments and international partners should commit to full phase of the moony engage late Africans in all aspects of their political programs and initiatives that scrape juvenility and economic development. offspring have repeatedly establishd a forgetingness and an ability to contri merelye to the development process from the identification of issues to instruction execution and monitoring.However, to reap full benefits of their contri barelyions, offspring participation in programmes such as NEPAD, MDGs and PRSs hires to be strengthened. As mo tivated and inspired citizens, juvenility lot are agents of change with the emf for taking a leading role in tackling Africas development challenges for themselves, their families and the club. The youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow. genteelness and Skills Training for African young person boyish Africans pack access to two overnice formal program line and opportunities to acquire a range of vocational and life skills to progressively participate in all spheres of an change magnitudely k instantaneouslyledge-intensive parliamentary law, today as preteen citizens and tomorrow as the continents future leaders. Unfortunately, junior hoi polloi in Africa struggle to acquire an education that tolerates them with the rightfield set of skills and k immediatelyledge. As a result, the transition from schooling-to-work is a study challenge such that many new-fangled Africans end up either unemployed or underemployed in the informal sector with little protection a nd prospects. regimens and international partners have made concerted efforts in recent years to improve this situation. In particular, to achieve the goal of universal primary education, many African countries have directed much effort and resources to improving primary school enrolment. The abolishing of school fees at the primary level has been a major(ip) driving force to achieve this goal. In Malawi, for manikin, free primary school education has considerably increased the youth literacy level. Even while enrolments have been increasing, the quality of education in many African countries appears to be on the decline.Inadequate infrastructure and cooking facilities, poor and inappropriate curricula, and overlook of well-trained and motivated teachers are among the main primer coats explaining this decline. The Nigeria government is still having issues with the labour unions over the implementation of the N18,000 ($115. 38) minimum wage. Though access to primary education is a demand first step and a fulfilment of a human right, it is as well clear that it does not provide needed skills for a young African to deal in an increasingly competitive labour market.Moreover, at the unsophisticated level, a critical mass of secondary and higher education graduates are required in order to accelerate economic development. In most African countries, secondary schools are limited in capacity, which is largely receivable to inadequate budgetary resources for this sector. Consequently, the calamitys of young people proceeding to secondary school, not to mention tertiary institutions, are significantly hampered. To deal with this predicament, African governments and international partners moldiness sire a much holistic approach to education, broadening their focal point from just primary education.In this context, African girls and young women need special tending. Overall, in most of Africa, sexual urge disparities continue to blank out young girls acq uisition of a decent education and employable skills. This keeps young African girls away from their rightful place as agents of development and leaders of tomorrow. Fortunately, the gender situation has greatly improved in recent years in some African countries. A number of them, such as Botswana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland, Nigeria, Zimbabwe etc, are in fact on track to achieve the goal of eliminating gender disparities in primary education. 1 Other countries have upseted to a range of measures to reduce the gender disparity in access to education mateless illustration is the supply of free uniforms and books to girls in Kenya. There are likewise considerable regional disparities at bottom countries in scathe of education and educational attainments. In this regard, the uneven distribution of educational infrastructure in most African countries reflects the weak commitment of governments in addressing this issue. Most secondary schools and tertiary inst itutions in Africa are located in the cities, with countryfied pupils struggling for access.This situation contributes to the persistent urban-bias that has so much distorted Africas development. The difficulties of the school-to-work transition would be reduced if young people end up with skills that are demanded by employers. One approach is to design curricula to suit the changing postulate of the labour market, or alternatively, to combine formal education with workbased training as has been adopted in Egypt. Different forms of training are also needed to address the limited skills of young Africans once they have left formal education.In this context, African governments can provide public funded training or pecuniary support for hush-hush provision of such facilities, which could focus on either general training or more specific vocational skills. Apprenticeships have been utilized in a number of African countries as a measure to address skills and employability of out-of- school youth for example the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme in Nigeria. In 1987, the Government of River State in Nigeria launched an innovative programme dubbed the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS) as an attempt to link education and training with the workplace.The organization provides vocational education and training to unemployed youth. It utilizes facilities such as workshops and technical instructors from private industries, government institutions, and by way of subcontracting arrangements, way-side craftsmen and tradesmen in the informal sector. Under this scheme, unemployed youth and school leavers are trained for a period of 6 to 36 months under reputable master craftsmen. They are also taught management, business and administrative skills.The scheme has succeeded in training over 600,000 unemployed youth in over 80 different trades out of which more or less two-thirds started their take micro-enterprise. A winding training scheme dubbed School-On-Wheel s programme introduced in 1990 has provided vocational training to over 21,000 school leavers and other unskilled persons in rural areas. The programme is of a three-month duration, after which graduates are take up into the NOAS. Another related scheme is the Waste-to-Wealth Scheme under which youth are trained in the techniques of converting waste material into useful objects.At least 8,000 people have been trained under this scheme. 2 likewise the provision of training, the private and non-profit sectors also have a role in providing formal education at all levels. For example, unearthly bodies are actively complicated in the educational sector in Africa, even at the tertiary level. Since governments are constrained by limited financial resources, African leaders need to explore the use of pubic-private partnerships (PPPs) to overcome shortfalls in the education sector.PPPs can also enhance the linkages (forward and backward) between the formal education sector and the privat e sector. This can in turn ensure that curricula are demand-driven, helping to improve the skills match between school leavers and requirements of employers. Trained and motivated young people can themselves play a substantial role through peer education initiatives. Peers can reach out either in an organized panache or informally to other youth, imparting information and knowledge on issues such as health and well-being.Peer education can happen in teensy-weensy groups or through individual contact, and can take place in a variety of settings such as in schools and universities, clubs, churches, workplaces, on the street or in a shelter. In Africa, peer education has been used successfully for raising human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS awareness and growth life-skills amongst vulnerable youth. Initiatives of development partners. Development partners have also played a major role in pushing the education and skills agenda forward in Africa and in promoting initiatives to increase education access and attainments throughout the continent.One innovative project developed by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) together with the Canadian Bureau for International Education aims at providing education and training to participants in a number of African countries. Known as the CIDA young Education and Training Awards Africa, the project focuses on young people already involved in non-governmental organizations and community groups. The education and training provided to winners of the awards include short courses and academic programmes.Having these programmes in the country also helps stem wag drain. Youth battle and the Challenges of Migration Having a job provides one not solitary(prenominal) with a source of income but also a basis for dignity and self-respect. To be leaders in the context of their families and in the broader community, young Africans need to secure a decent job. However, young people have a hard succession in African job markets with inadequate education and skills and few opportunities, most young Africans face a future of low-wage function, un usance and under custom.An increasing youth nation adds to the pool of job seekers every year, worsening the situation. In Nigeria, over 300,000 youth participate in the National Youth Service Corps scheme annually, but sadly, nevertheless well-nigh 5% secure decent jobs. The rest are either unemployed or underemployed. In Northern Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa, young women also face particular barriers in the labour market, much of which is attributable to cultural attitudes towards them.The expansion of employment opportunities is far below the growth in the youth population because of a lack of appropriate technologies and investment. For example, Africas continued dependence on rain-fed agriculture causes much underemployment among rural youth for most part of the year. With little access to land, these youth lack educational, economic and cultur al opportunities. As a result, young people consciously decide to move to the towns in the hope of greater chances for employment, as well as a more exciting life, causing massive urban drift.Sadly, once in the big city, African youth lose hope of finding a decent job and are compelled to cross dangerous paths and waters to better pastures, with all too tragic consequences. It is no longer intelligence operation that less than one-third of the thousands of young Africans who attempt to reach Europe through the Sahara desert and other illegal channels sword it to their dream destinations. Another enigma is the rising incidence of youth poverty, crime, prostitution and drugs among youth, as well as the troth in armed conflict direct consequence of the lack of decent jobs.In Nigeria one we have the Boko Haram sect, the Niger Delta militia etc. This is of particular concern, not alone due to its profound impact on the lives of young people but for society as a whole. Tackling The Challenges Of Youth Employment For many decades, governments and international partners focused on macroeconomic stability and structural adjustment as a government agency to campaign economic growth and thereby create jobs. The underlying faith in this approach was that these measures alone would lead to job creation and poverty reduction, for youth and adults alike.There is now a growing consensus among governments and development partners that specific polity measures are required to tackle the main barriers to employment generation for Africas youth. One comparatively effective measure is the public works programme, which has been implemented in a number of African countries with some success in creating jobs for unskilled youth. Public whole kit and boodle Programmes in Senegal With the assistance of the World Bank and the African Development Bank, the Senegalese government set up in 1989 a US$33 jillion public works programme that targeted the growing number of unemployed youth.The main objectives of the programme, which was administered by the Agence pour lExecution de Travaux dInteret Public contre le Sous-emploi (AGETIP), were to provide short-term employment to these young people through labour-intensive public works projects such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of public services, and provision of indispensable services. The work was subcontracted out to small and medium-scale enterprises. During the first phase of the programme, around 80,000 jobs were created for young people in 416 projects in small-scale enterprises.Overall, AGETIP has implemented 3,226 projects resulting in the creation of 350,000 working(prenominal) jobs annually. More importantly, the projects also led to the establishment of 6,000 permanent jobs, an outcome that is not usually associated with a public works programme. 3 The International Labour shaping (ILO) is involved in a number of projects that target job creation for young people as part of their Employment Intensive Investment Programme (EIPP). EIPPs are public works-type projects in the area of infrastructure, and have been implemented in over 20 African countries.Under the umbrella of this initiative and with assistance from donors, a number of projects in labour-based road construction and maintenance have been supported on the continent. Facing a dire situation in the labour market, many young people stop actively searching for a job. A South African survey in 2000 revealed, for example, that 39 per cent of unemployed youth had stopped searching for employment. 4 Job-search assistance can be provided or funded by the government to help advocate African youth to re-engage with the labour market through activities like paternity job applications and curriculum vitae, and preparing for interviews.A number of global initiatives have been set up to accelerate efforts in tackling youth unemployment and underemployment. For example, the unify Nations, along with the ILO an d World Bank, formal the Youth Employment Network (YEN) in 2001 to provide support to the global commitment of developing and implementing strategies that give young people everywhere a real chance to find decent and productive work as embedded in the United Nations Millennium Declaration of 2000.National and regional programmes aside, young people continually demonstrate their own ability to cope with the situation they face in the labour market. Promoting The Benefits Of Migration While Mitigating The Costs While migrating to an urban area is a rational act for a young person in search of a job and a better life, too often, the end result is poverty and exploitation. To rectify this, governments must(prenominal) look at job creation in rural areas, though these initiatives need to be both intensified and expanded.At the same time, very little effort has been made in Africa to reduce emigration or to promote the return of emigrants. It is unreasonable for so many Africans sustai nment outside Africa (who are making titan strides) to return home. In response to this situation, the African Union has established a Strategic Framework for a Policy on Migration with the goal of addressing the causes of internal and international migration and its challenges.The ILO together with the European electric charge has also set up a project on Managing Labour Migration for Development and Integration in the Maghreb, West Africa and easterly Africa. This project has increased awareness of stakeholders on different aspects of labour migration, promoted understanding of its causes and consequences, and collected data and information, which are critically needed to develop comprehensive policy frameworks and labour migration management measures.Youth and Entrepreneurship Given the right combination of motivation, ideas and opportunities, youth are more than able to establish productive and creative businesses. Engaging in entrepreneurship shifts young people from being j ob seekers to job creators, and also from societal dependence to selfsufficiency. Many self-employed youth also contribute to the upkeep of their family, sometimes in a leading role in the absence of parents.Despite these potential benefits entrepreneurship, the majority of youth continue to look up to the state for employment rather than creating their own jobs and employing others. This failure of young people to engage in entrepreneurship has also been attributed to a range of factors sociocultural attitudes towards youth entrepreneurship, lack of entrepreneurial training in the school curriculum, incomplete market information, absence of business support and physical infrastructure, regulatory framework conditions, and in particular, poor access to finance.The youth strongly recognized their involvement in small business development as an important vehicle for national development but lack of financial resources has always been a major constraint for youth entrepreneurship and business development. Owing to the lack of collateral and business experience, young people are considered a very high risk by lenders. The limited number of micro-finance institutions that target young people in business continues to constraint the development of youth entrepreneurship. On the gender front, very few young women in Africa engage in establishing and course their own enterprises.For instance, in Zambia only around 5 per cent of females aged 15-19 are running enterprises as proprietors compared to 15 per cent among their male counterparts. While 25 per cent of female youth aged 20-24 are engaged in running enterprises in Zambia, as much as 40 per cent of male youth are self-employed. The Effect of Combination of Training And Funds Providing capital alone to young potential entrepreneurs is only part of the solution. Studies have shown that what is more effective is the provision of capital together with training in managerial and entrepreneurial skills.In South Africa , for example, the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (UYF), a government-created development finance agency for skills development and employment creation for youth, has developed a number of initiatives such as micro loans for young entrepreneurs, the creation of a venture-capital fund underwritten by a mainstream bank with the UYF providing guarantees, and the development of a voucher programme to access business development services. Private institutions, oddly non-profit organizations, also play an important role in training and funding young entrepreneurs.One example of this is TechnoServes business plan competition Believe, Begin, Become, which is supported by the Google Foundation, and now active in Ghana and Swaziland. Since 2002, TechnoServes competitions have helped launch or expand 165 small and medium-scale enterprises that have generated US$8. 2 million in additional revenues and created more than 1,000 new jobs. In the international policy context, the Youth Employment Network (YE N) and the Commonwealth Youth Credit Initiative (CYCI), for instance, help promote youth entrepreneurship in a number of African countries.Partnerships between such international institutions and the private sector have seen the creation and development of young entrepreneurs Young Africans can also benefit from the experiences of established business leaders. Through mentoring schemes, internships and training opportunities, young people can gain an insight into setting up and running a business, and importantly, how to avoid the potential pitfalls in the real world of business.Governments need to encourage the private sector to take on this role. As with other areas of economic development addressed so far, one key weakness in the formulation of youth entrepreneurship initiatives is the inadequate involvement of youth in their design and implementation, which will be discussed later. Youth and ICT A Powerful Combination for Promoting leaders The information and communication tech nology (ICT) revolution has radically changed the world we live in.Young people in particular have demonstrated an aptitude in developing, adopting and disseminating such technologies, and their leadership role in this sphere is evident throughout both the industrialized and developing world. In fact, it is common practice for adults to learn ICT skills from youth. ICT Is Cross-Cutting ICT adoption can be used both as a tool to promote youth as leaders in the ICT sector and to foster broader youth leadership. With an impact that is cross-cutting, ICT can, therefore, contribute to youth participation in a wide range of economic, social and policy-making activities.For example, new technologies can be used for improving access to and quality of education for African youth. With the necessary infrastructure, technologies like online learning can bring a high standard of education to remote, rural communities. Moreover, in a global economy characterized by skill-intensity, young Africa ns increasingly require a range of ICT skills in order to get a decent job. Equipping youth with such skills can also have a catalytic effect on declare oneself and entrepreneurship, bestow to economic development.ICT entrepreneurship is evident on the streets of all African cities in vending kiosks, where young people provide such services as ready phone calls, sale of recharge cards and repairs. The number of tele-centres in countries like Senegal and the proliferation of Internet cafes across the continent have also been a source of employment opportunities for youth. In Nigeria, we have information processing system village in Lagos, GSM village in Abuja etc, engaging thousands of youths in different spheres of ICT, thereby providing job opportunities for them.Besides these small, informal businesses, ICT-related youth enterprise opportunities include producing/reselling hardware, software and telecommunications products data entry services ICT-based business services softw are customisation distance learning computer training consultancy inwardness provision communication (e-mail/Internet/mobile) data processing (small business information systems) and ICT-based manufacturing systems. African Youth also employ ICT to develop social enterprises.For instance, the Mobile for Good (M4G) programme in Kenya. M4G is a social franchise project designed to use mobile technology to improve the lives of people in Kenya, the majority being young people. It aims to send essential health, employment and community content via SMS on mobile phones in order to inform and empower disadvantaged individuals. The pilot project, which started in kinfolk 2003 in Kibera, an informal settlement situated on the outskirts of Nairobi, has successfully evolved into a self-sustainable Kenyan owned and managed venture.The project seeks to empower marginalized individuals by offering a unequaled SMS-based information service to disadvantaged communities. The services that have be en developed include Kazi560, a job information service for the casual jobs sector, Health Tips, which provides daily tips to subscribers about Breast Cancer, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes, and a society News service, which provides free, locally sourced news to those living in informal settlements in Kenya via SMS.The Community News service reaches over 5,000 people in Kibera. The information is collected by a group of 11 Youth Mobilizers who are all residents in the community. Information can sidetrack from events, to health clinics, to jobs on offer. All the information is designed to promote economic and social development in communities and to provide a means of accessing information other than costly or unavailable. The success of M4G has been staggering.The project has fulfilled its subscriber targets considerably ahead of schedule, with the number of subscribers now exceeding 30,000. Hundreds of people have found employment through the jobs service, Kazi560. 5 ICT also facilitate s youth participation in civic discussions, providing young people with a voice on a range of topics. Electronic fora involving African youth have been successfully undertaken by international agencies like the United Nations.Such initiatives not only assist young people to exchange and develop ideas, but also help inform policy makers and practitioners. The success of the struggle for leadership change in Egypt and other places by the youth can be attributed to one of the effects of ICT. ICT Adoption In Africa Remains Insufficient Despite its advantages, ICT adoption in much of Africa remains low. For instance, there are only 0. 75 computer users per 100 inhabitants this is to say that only a small proportion of young Africans have access to the Internet.Moreover, due to differences in income and access to infrastructure, the digital-divide on the continent is demarcated not only by national boundaries but also within countries. Fortunately, decreasing prices and recent advances, in particular in mobile telephony, have helped expand access to ICT on the continent, especially amongst the youth. Nonetheless, governments and partners have a lot more to do to eliminate disparities in ICT adoption. Governments should focus on a pro-poor ICT policy promotion of ICT investments in rural areas and public-private partnerships financial and trategic support of ICT youth-led enterprises career counseling for young people on ICT opportunities and different areas of specialization promotion of affordable ICT rural infrastructure and local content development of multi utilisation community tele-centres in rural areas and dissemination of best practices. One way of building capabilities and networks between public institutions (governments and universities) and the private sector is the support of technology parks and business incubators for the ICT sector, in particular to nurture youth-led ICT enterprises.Egypt, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa and Tunisia are pioneers in promoting ICT-youth led enterprises through such initiatives. International partners are also playing an important part in the promotion of information and communication technologies for development, known as ICT4D. For instance, the African Youth and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D) Network AYIN- (www. ayinetwork. org) was established in 2005 as a pan-African platform for youth input into the African information society agenda.It is a vision of a networked generation of young Africans empowering themselves and contributing to the continents active participation in the Information Society. The network has commenced the implementation of its Action Plan with the development of strategies to promote youth involvement in policy development on the continent. Improving Health and Fighting HIV/AIDS Through Youth Leadership The ability of African youth to contribute to economic development and come leaders in all walks of life critically depends on thei r health status.In Africa today, young people are, however, vulnerable to weaken illnesses and health problems such as malaria, tuberculosis, water-borne maladys, maternal complications, and above all, HIV/AIDS. Consequences of HIV/AIDS for Development The HIV/AIDS pandemic, especially in Southern Africa, poses one of the greatest economic, social and political challenges of our time. AIDS reduces the earning capacity of affected individuals and increases their medical expenses, pushing families and households further into poverty, creating a icious cycle of material deprivation and health problems. The disease leaves behind a generation of orphans, many of whom are left to be brought up by other relatives or are forced to fend for themselves. Besides the tragic consequences of the pandemic for individuals and their families, HIV/AIDS remains a major burden for affected countries it severely hampers efforts of governments to improve the health status of the countries and achieve s ustainable economic development, in particular by diverting scarce resources from other development priorities.HIV/AIDS also reduces labour supply and productivity levels, which in turn have a negative impact on economic growth. This is nowhere more evident than in the education sector, where the disease is cutting back the amount of trained teachers and diminishing aspirations for achieving the Millennium Development Goal II of universal primary education by 2015. Young African Women Are The Most insecure To HIV/AIDS Young Africans are more vulnerable to HIV infection than adults with young women being at the highest risk of getting the virus.In terms of the pic of young women, the figures are quite alarming young women (aged 15-24) in sub-Saharan Africa are two and half times more likely to be give than males in the same age group. In some areas, up to six times more women than men are affected in the 15-24 age group. 6 The photo of young Africans to HIV infection stems from both physical and social aspects of their lives. Physical vulnerability results from the damaging effects of malnutrition and ailments such as bilharzia.A weakened immune system, particularly for adolescence during growth spurts, significantly increases their susceptibility to becoming infected. HIV prevalence can also be attributed to a range of socio-economic factors such as poverty, inequality, and social expulsion low levels of education and lack of information poor access to health services and societal attitudes. Young women are especially vulnerable because of migration, poor living conditions in informal settlements, isolation and proneness to sexual exploitation and abuse.The Need For Targeted Interventions The conventional approach to tackling HIV/AIDS focuses on changing peoples behaviour in order to reduce HIV infection rates. Young people have been targeted by such campaigns via the media, youth centres and peer education. The most well known initiative using this para digm is the ABC campaign (Abstain, Be faithful and use a Condom). However, ABC initiatives fail to address the physical and social environment that creates the conditions for high infection rates.The United Nations Secretary-Generals overcompensate on young women in Southern Africa recognized this limitation and called for broader measures that also aim at creating safe places for young women, amongst other actions. 7 Youth As Key Partners African youth and their organizations have been already at the forefront of tackling HIV/AIDS in terms of raising awareness and developing life skills, and also supporting others such as orphans. In this respect, youth centres and peer education have proven to be one of the most effective initiatives undertaken by African youth.For example, the Anti-Aids Youth Clubs in Ethiopia, with UNICEF support, youth clubs have sprung up in the country to fight stigma, unlikeness and ignorance about HIV/AIDS. There are now more than 230 such clubs alone in Ethiopias Somali region, where the stigma of the disease and societal attitudes make it particularly challenging to get the message out. In this region, the use of condoms is estimated to be as low as 0. 5 per cent, and female genital mutilation, a major factor behind HIV transmission, is almost universal amongst women.Youth clubs are more successful than government interventions because young people can more effectively tempt their peers by using appropriate media to target them. A comment by one member of a club about music written for this purpose captures this point Young people dont stop in the street to read a banner they dont understand. But they listen to the music and the lyrics. The songs written address such themes as prevention, stigma and friendship.Other clubs use poetry and drama to get the messages across to other youth. Besides promoting HIV/AIDS awareness, these clubs also give young people a sense of responsibility and pride in regions where jobs are few and far between. 8 One limitation of peer education in the area of HIV prevention is that it often fails to reach young women, who are the most vulnerable. To rectify this situation, governments, partners and youth organizations need to consider targeted measures that focus on young vulnerable women.Moreover, attention must also be given to addressing the causes of their vulnerability so that some of the contributing factors are tackled, including the danger of sexual exploitation and abuse. While there is a compelling need to focus on HIV/AIDS in many African countries, there must also be a concerted effort to improve the overall health situation of young Africans including improving access to sanitation and drinking water, increasing nutritional levels, and expanding preventive health programmes.Broadening the focus of health services can help reduce stigmatisation and the subsequent reluctance of youth to use these services. In all initiatives, full participation of young people in the development and promotion of health-related policies and programmes must be encouraged to enable them to become agents of change in their communities. Above all, continued international cooperation and a collective global effort are necessary for the containment of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and other health challenges touch on young people in Africa.The Role of Youth in Protecting the environment and Promoting sustainable Livelihoods As heirs to the environmental risks and hazards the world is producing today, it is imperative that the youth take on a leading role in protecting the environment and promoting sustainable livelihoods. 9 Africa faces a number of environmental risks and hazards that disproportionately affect young people, not only because they result in deteriorating physical conditions for both rural and urban dwellers. Erosion, pollution in all its forms, reduced biodiversity, over-exploitation f natural resources such as water and forests, and desertification, among man y others, also severely compromise economic development and prosperity. Already, forest size in Africa has been drastically reduced over the last century, due to human activity, contributing to desertification and water scarcity. In many countries on the continent, access to clean drinking water may soon become a reason for conflict. In addition, the rate of urbanization in Africa poses an environmental challenge in waste management, access to water and sanitation facilities.With only an estimated one-third of the total municipal waste on the continent formally disposed of, the amount of waste generated in African cities far exceeds the capacity of most municipalities. Already exposed to economic hardship, the youth need to take responsibility for the state of the environment by becoming full participants in society. But the question remains Are young people sufficiently engaged? The voice of youth is an invaluable asset to environmental conservation and management.Some governments and non-governmental organizations in Africa are committed to advancing the role and active involvement of youth in the protection of the environment and the promotion of sustainable development. Initiatives include youth participation in advisory bodies such as youth councils within the context of Chapter 25 of agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002.The New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) also recognizes the importance of a healthy and productive environment and the role that the young people of Africa can play within this agenda. But commitment does not always mean action. For example, even though many African countries are signatories to various UN conventions, many have yet to be implemented. And, even in cases where conventions have been adopted and implemented, youth involvement has been at a minimum. Youth Taking Leadership The best prospect for the environment in Africa is an empowered youth.The involvement of youth in environment and development decision-making at the local, national and regional levels is critical to the implementation of sustainable development policies. Many youth organizations are already taking a leading role in the area of environmental protection. For example, in January 1993, Environment JEUnesse (ENJEU, or Environment- Youth), Quebecs youth environmentalist network, took the initiative to create a Francophone network of youth organizations for environment and development.The essential aspect of ENJEUs action plan is to mobilize and encourage youth to come together regionally in each major pocket of the Francophone world, including Africa. Some youth organizations in Africa such as Tensing, Internationally affiliated Youth (ICY), YMCA/YWCA for Africa, Organization for International Resource Management, and Friends of the Earth clubs, have carried out education campaigns, tre e planting and waste management exercises in their respective communities, especially during the commemoration of the World Environment Day.Other best practices of youth involvement include For the Love of Water in Botswana, Uniting Youth across Northern Africa, Students on the Move in Uganda, Painting Ghana Green and Ecological Youth of Angola among others. To improve awareness across the board, governments must integrate environmental issues into school curricula and training programmes for teachers. Youth in schools, communities and organizations must be educated on sustainable ways of living such as recycling and the sustainable use of environmental-friendly technologies.An example is the efforts of the Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa and Friends of the Earth clubs in the region. In Angola, Juventude Ecologica Angolana (JEA) (The Ecological Youth of Angola) is a non-profit environmental NGO, which was established in 1991 with the primary purpose of promoti ng environmental conservation and sustainable development through the involvement and participation of young people in environmental education and active learning processes and activities. JEA now has over 5,000 conservation volunteers and environmental educators based in eight of Angolas provinces.These young volunteers address different environmental issues facing the country sanitation, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, desertification, and urban solid waste. The organization has developed programmes and projects such as the Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA) initiative, capacity building, database management, clean-up and waste recycling campaigns, research and environmental assessment, and tree planting. In June 2002, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recognized the contribution of this organization by awarding it the UNEP Global 500 Youth Environmental Award. 10 Environmental And Sustainable Livelihoods Is Cross-Cutting Promoting environmental an d sustainable livelihoods has a number of indirect, but nonetheless important benefits for countries in Africa. For example, there is a double dividend from developing sustainable technologies in the area of renewable energies. On the one hand, these technologies reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, while at the same time they can be generators of employment for vulnerable youth. Creating Jobs Under the SunThe Kibera Community Youth Project (KCYP) produces solar panels in a small workshop in the middle of Kibera, Kenyas largest informal settlement. Using skills and equipment passed on to them by a British volunteer, young people in this project are involved in all aspects of production. The solar panels are sold to power radios and charge mobile phones and rechargeable batteries, services that are in high demand in an area where electricity supply is erratic at best. 11 Many of the young people involved in KCYP have never had a job before and often live in jobless households.Thi s project provides them with an opportunity to earn an income, while the simple technology helps improve peoples lives in a sustainable way. To further enhance such synergies, governments in collaboration with youth organizations should instruct programmes that promote the participation of African youth in reforestation, combating desertification, waste management, recycling and other environmental practices. Youth participation in such programmes would provide training and encourage awareness and action, while also generating potential income-generating activities and employment opportunities.Youth Participation in Economic Decision-Making Youth in Africa face specific challenges in the areas of education, employment, migration, entrepreneurship, ICT, health and environmental and sustainable livelihoods. To address these issues, African governments must prioritize youth in policy-making, or forego the chance of meeting their development goals. Until recently, policymakers rarely i nclude youth in the decision-making process or even consulted with them on their concerns. Cultural attitudes have been a major stumbling block to establishing inter-generational dialogue, not just in Africa but also globally.Traditionally, wisdom was seen as an increasing function of age, and subsequently, adult leaders and policymakers took it upon themselves to make decisions on behalf of youth. But such policymaking largely resulted in inappropriate policies that failed to address the requisite needs and aspirations of youth. Having incidentally proven their ability to take leadership in the area of economic development, acting as agents of change, this traditional attitude requires pressing modification. Justifying youth participation It would appear to the onlooker that the case for including youth in policymaking is compelling.Nonetheless, it has been necessary to argue why economic decision-making should be both inclusive and youth-focused. For example, the UNFPAs report The brass for Investing in Young raft as Part of a National poverty Reduction Strategy offers a number of arguments 1. Equitable distribution of resources Young people make up a large proportion of the population and the poor 2. Achieving the MDGs Five goals explicitly refer to young people in terms of educational attainment, gender balance in education, improved maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS and other diseases, and developing decent employment opportunities for young people 3.Economic benefits By investing in education and health, governments can increase productivity and economic growth 4. Youth poverty requires special attention Young people experience particular vulnerabilities that make them prone to suffering from poverty, unemployment, etc 5. Long-term benefits Through investing in young people, it is possible to embark on the demographic transition by lowering population growth and by improving the situation of youth, countries can decrease the chance that they wi ll later become involved in criminal activity and civil conflict.Youth participation in major development strategies PRSPs, MDGs and NEPAD New initiatives now dominate the development agenda on the continent, including Poverty Reduction Strategy covers (PRSPs), the quest to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD). These approaches are a qualifying from the past with a shift to a focus on pro-poor policies, participatory and consultative processes, and ownership by countries. Though youth often figure conspicuously on paper, their involvement in any of these initiatives has usually been limited.For instance, in a review of 31 completed PRSPs, over half mention that youth were consulted as a group as part of the PRSP process. However, the initiatives targeting youth have been piecemeal and inadequate in their scale and impact. 12 It is encouraging that the more recent PRSPs are more likely to have a major youth focus. In terms of youth employment, another analysis of PRSPs found that out of 21 African PRSPs, only 11 had at least one core section analyzing the issue. 13Clearly, there is a lot more governments could do to improve youth participation in the PRS process, particularly as part of the next generation of strategies. African governments should complement efforts of both the UN and youth organizations to achieve these goals. A good example of this is the TPT scheme below. Tackling Poverty Together (TPT) aims to enhance the role of African youth in poverty reduction strategies. The project was established by the United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs Programme on Youth together with the National Council of Swedish Youth Organizations (LSU).Other UN agencies and the Economic Commission for Africa provided technical support to the project. The TPT project brought together teams of youth from six African countries, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia, along wi th a youth team from Sweden. Through workshops and ongoing support, these teams developed strategies and action plans consisting of concrete steps to improve the inclusion of youth in poverty reduction efforts in their respective countries. 14Youth have also been actively involved in the MDG agenda as reflected by their participation and critical point of ideas at various international fora including the World Youth Summits. For instance, in 2005 a group of international youth leaders representing a range of non-governmental organizations, including representatives from Africa, prepared a report, Youth and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Challenges and Opportunities for Implementation. 15 This report outlines how young people can be included and empowered as part of strategies for achieving the MDGs.The aim is that the report can be used as a lobby tool and guide for programmatic action, but ultimately, it is also a call to all member States, UN change agencies, and civil society to create mechanisms for youth to participate in the implementation of the MDGs and take advantage of the work and activities youth are already leading. In 2005, the NEPAD Youth Summit was organized to launch a broad social movement to promote youth participation in the implementation and monitoring of NEPAD at the country level.The establishment of NEPAD e-Africa Youth Programme is another platform that aims to promote youth involvement in the implementation of NEPAD. This initiative seeks to build a cadre of young people who will raise awareness on the issues of the information society and serve as active participants in building an inclusive information society in their countries. Conclusion Young people in Africa have enormous potential that could be harnessed for promoting economic development on the continent.African governments and international partners, therefore, need to focus policy initiatives and resources on improving the leadership role of African youth. The s uccess of such interventions depends on the participation of young people in all aspects of the public policy process from the crafting of economic policies to their implementation, and subsequently, monitoring and evaluation. In particular, youth need to be part of the current development agenda in terms of poverty-reduction strategies, meeting the MDGs, and implementing the objectives of NEPAD.Young people need to have opportunities to carry out their activities. At the same time, governments and international partners can provide technical and financial support to youth in order for them to fulfil their potential as agents of change. To achieve this goal, practical and achievable measures need to be put in place by both governments and international partners, including Strengthening the capacity of youth clubs, associations and organizations at community and national levels Promoting interaction between economic policy makers, international partners and youth to learn about the ir problems and experiences Instituting regular consultations with youth organizations to get their inputs into the development process and Promoting youth leadership at local, national, subregional and global levels through regular interface with community and national authorities. References 1. Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002. 2. du Toit, R. (2003) laid-off youth in South Africa the distressed generation? Paper presented at the Minnesota International Counselling Institute, 27 July 1 August 2003. 3. Kanyenze G. , Mhone G. , and T. Sparreboom (2000) Strategies to Combat Youth Unemployment and Marginalisation in Anglophone Africa, ILO/SAMAT Discussion Paper, No. 14. 4. Mabala, R. (2006) From HIV prevention to HIV protection addressing the vulnerability of girls and young women in urban areas, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 18(2). 5. Sarr, M. (2000) Youth employment in Africa the Senegalese experience, Background Paper No. , UNO-ILO-World Bank Meeting on Youth Employment, New York, 25th August 2000. 6. United Nations (2004) Report of the United Nations Secretary-Generals Task Force on Women, Girls and HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa Facing the Future Together, United Nations, New York. 7. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) (2002) Youth and Employment in Africa, Paper prepared for and presented at the Youth Employment Summit, Alexandria, Egypt, September. 8. UNECA (2005a) the Millennium Development Goals in Africa Progress and Challenges, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 9.UNECA (2005b) The Economic Report on Africa 2005 Meeting the Challenge of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 10. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth Our section Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. 11. United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) (2005) The Case of Investing in Young People as part of Poverty Reduction Strategy, UNFPA, New York. 12. uk. oneworld. net/section/mobile 13. World Health Organization (WHO)-AFRO (2003) HIV/AIDS Epidemiological command Update for the WHO African Region 2002, WHO, Regional Office for Africa, Harare. 5. www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/TPT 16. www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/mdgs. htm 17. www. kcyp. kabissa. org 1 UNECA (2005a) the Millennium Development Goals in Africa Progress and Challenges, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 2 UNECA (2002), Youth and Employment in Africa A Paper prepared for and presented at the Youth and Employment Summit, Alexandria, Egypt, September 2002. 3 Sarr M. , Youth employment in Africa the Senegalese experience, Background Paper No. 3, UNO-ILO-World Bank Meeting on Youth Employment, New York, 25th August, 2000. 4 Kanyenze et al. Strategies to Combat Youth Unemployment and Marginalization in Anglophone Africa, ILO/SAMAT Discussion Paper, No. 14, 2000. du Toit, R. unemployed Youth in South A frica the distressed generation? Paper presented at the Minnesota International Counseling Institute, 27 July-1 August 2003. 5 uk. oneworld. net/section/mobile 6 Mabala, R. (2006) From HIV prevention to HIV protection addressing the vulnerability of girls and young women in urban areas, Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 8(2). 7 United Nations (2004) Report of the United Nations Secretary-Generals Task Force on Women, Girls and HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa Facing the Future Together, United Nations, New York. 8 World Health Organization (WHO)-AFRO (2003) HIV/AIDS Epidemiological Surveillance Update for the WHO African Region 2002, WHO, Regional Office for Africa, Harare 9 Agenda 21, Chapter 25 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth Our Region Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. 10 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) Africa Environment Outlook for Youth Our Region Our Life, UNEP, Nairobi. 11 www. kcyp. kabissa. org 12 United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) (2005) The Case of Investing in Young People as part of Poverty Reduction Strategy, UNFPA, New York. 13 UNECA (2005b) UNECA (2005b) The Economic Report on Africa 2005 Meeting the Challenge of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa, UNECA, Addis Ababa 14 www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/TPT 15 www. un. org/esa/socdev/unyin/mdgs. htm

Ethics Dilemma Paper Essay

ETHICS DILEMMA PAPEROne of the most difficult things in the criminal justice business line is related to ethics in the criminal justice profession. Whether it being a corrections officer, police officer, or a judge. The primary(prenominal) goal is to ensure you as a professional are making the right decision for the greater good and that it falls within the guidelines that are institute before you in the truths that have been written. In the recent dilemma that occurred in Broward County on February 19, 2014 is an example of an ethics dilemma in the criminal justice field that happens much too often. I will explain to you the nature of the dilemma, the ethical/unethical decision that was made, the outcome of the situation, and suggest some alternative courses of actions that could have interpreted place instead and why.NATURE OF THE DILEMMAOn February 19, 2014 a Broward County Sheriffs surrogate of 20 plus years on the force conducted a commerce stop of a vehicle traveling un justnessfully in the HOV (High Occupancy Vehicle) lane. Once the proxy had the vehicle stopped he was informed by the muliebrity in the drivers seat that she was written text him conducting the traffic stop. Once the sheriffs surrogate gained knowledge ofthis he proceeded to force his way into the womans vehicle trying to grab her phone, then pulling her out of the vehicle and dragging her onto the ground causing injuries in several places as a nonher deputy stood by with his gun drawn. All the while this was going on he continued to yell at her stating she was committing a felony and telling her I know the natural law better than you , and placing her under arrest. The ethical dilemma this situation brings forward is was the actions taken by this deputy really necessary and confirm on an ethical priming coat? (Miller, 2014).ETHICAL DECISION MADEIn this particular situation an unethical decision was made based on the circumstances of the incident at hand. The deputy was commit ting a crime (felony) himself by unlawfully forcing his way into her vehicle, and detaining her against her will for a crime she did not commit. All for a simple civil infraction (driving in an HOV lane), that could have been handled in a totally different and professional manner. This was the only law the woman was breaking at the time, and the only probable cause the deputy had to go on for the actions that he took.OUTCOME OF THE SITUATIONOnce the dust settled upon this unfortunate situation, the deputy assumed and thought that the woman was breaking the law by recording the audio and video of the deputy. He assumed that he had to give the woman permission to audio record him. Unfortunately to his disadvantage the Florida courts rule upholding a expectation of privacy provision (Silverman, 2012) to their all-party law, which the courts ruled does not apply to on-duty police (or anyone in public), as long as you are not interfere with them in conducting their duty. In this partic ular case the deputy appeared to be un enlightend in this revision to the law that the law enforcement agency clearly neglected to educate its department on.ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION/ WHYAccording to the situation at hand some of the alternative courses of actions that the deputy could have taken and the woman that was being stopped could have been drastically different. Ethically speaking the deputy could have not taken his actions to the extreme that he did all over the simple recording violation that he thought the woman was committing. His life was not in danger nor was there any indication of any physical threat advance from the woman. The deputy totally handled that situation in a very unprofessional and unethical manner.On the other hand the woman could have easily been justified in using deadly force on the deputy if he was not a law enforcement officer. She would have been justified well within the guidelines of Floridas Justifiable Use of Force law considering he unla wfully forced his into her car and violently dragged her out. Fortunately for him he was a law enforcement officer or he could have been killed.Another course of action for the sheriffs deputy and the department could have been to properly educate themselves and their officers of the most current laws regarding these types of situations. In admittance to making sure each and every deputy gets a refresher course on the necessary use of force procedures every few years. endIn conclusion of this ethical dilemma situation, what I can draw from this is several things. One being always treat people in a way I would like to be treated unless circumstances dictate otherwise it is the right and ethical action to take. Sometimes we just do not get that luxury of doing such an action when dealing with current types of people and situations and yes certain actions are necessary. Always take the time to educate yourself on certain laws or information you are not sure of before acting on what y ou think may be correct. Just like the famous saying, Ignorance of the law is not an excuse, and this is very true but it does go both ways for law enforcement and the public.ReferencesMiller, C. (2014). Photography is not a crime. Retrieved from http//photographyisnotacrime.com/2014/02/19/broward-sheriffs-deputy-violently-attacks-woman-recording-traffic-stop/Silverman, S. (2012). Reason.com idle minds and free markets. Retrieved from http//reason.com/archives/2012/04/05/7-rules-for-recording-police

Oliver Twist Essay

Oliver strain is the second smart written by Charles Dickens. It is each(prenominal) about Oliver who was an orphan living the piece of crimes in London. The novel was published in Bentleys Miscellany in a monthly basis. George Cruikshank was the illustrator of the said novel. Criticisms and opinions were self-possessed y Dickens as introducing the humankind of crimes. He exposed to the world the life hi theme of criminals and prostitutes. With this criticisms and comments, he took the opportunity of presenting a good view of his composition. He did not take the critics in a negative elan.Among the works of Dickens, Oliver twist is the presented in a dramatic form. Oliver twist appears in series of novel in 10 theaters in London. The novel was overly made with 25 numbers of versions since it started in 1906. The Famous Roman Polanski was the also made his own version of Oliver Twist. In the Oliver Twist, Oliver was an infant born in a workshop. After the adaptation of Olive r, he the came to an infant farm where he came o develop himself and then get back to the works place. Orphans were put to the workhouse to get their selves a home to get into.In the workplace, the orphans were experiencing the inhumane and mistreatment. With these mistreatments, the orphans were put into starvation. Oliver was asked to stand before his comrades to talk with their masters about the issue. Troublemaker is also named or recognized after Oliver. He does some job for other person who wishes to take him (Dickens, 2003). Oliver outside the workplace life was uneasy at first. He was so tired and hungry. He didnt expect that life was also misery. Jack Dawkins is one of the persons who help Oliver by giving him a place to stay. even so though, he was recently together with thieves, he was still finds people who help him. As he stays with Dawkins, he also works with him. He came to the world of pick pocketers. With his work with Dawkins, he was also accused for some crimes. W ith the crimes being accused for him, he came to experience the world of criminals and prostitutes. He had himself put into a world where there are many negative insights. The life of Oliver really became a misery when he came with the criminals and do some criminal works.His life was also more or less put to death when he once put into criminal work when he was shot. With this misery life of Oliver he came to pop off about his family roots. He came to know who his brother is. He talks with Maylies and Doctor Losberne about his misery life. He had a brother who is a monk and he was claimed to be an inherited to a monk. Oliver was also an inheritor of an estate which his father wrote in will before his father died. And because of this they wanted to have the inheritance of Oliver. In the end, Oliver made a life of good after he had also got the inheritance.Oliver Twist is of the broad novel of Dickens. The novel presented a story of humor and wit. The novel is of poverty mode and of cruelty. Oliver Twist may e given recognition for his thoughts about the world and its great creativity of story. With this unexampled of Dickens, he used some world views. He relates the Novel with religion world view. He uses some facts with the monks when tackling about the religion. He discussed that eve though the family of Oliver was of different religions, they were still putting the peace on their heart.With respect to the political view, the politics in the novel represents some deficiencies of the true form of politics in the whole wide world. It was presented and explained on the novel how the politics is some air of injustice. The real politics and politics in this novel are neither really similar nor different. In the geographical view, the novel was situated in way that the geographical mode is of the same way with the quantify of the novel was presented. It was situated in a community where people experienced difficulties with respect to community of criminals ad prostitutes.The people in the novel were creating a way that the geographic position of the community is essential. Tackling with the social view, the author speaks for the truth about the social community. It is explained in the novel that people need other people to survive in the community. People are born for other people. No man is an island. In order to survive the cruelty of the world, one person should have great communication and social interactions with other people. And last but not the least, about the economic view. One of the great topics in this novel is about the economic view.It is presented here that in life of poverty and scruelty people were doing unnecessary things just to make their life into fulfillment. People may do some crimes and other illegal works just to survive in the low economized community. The use of providing great world issues in the Novel is a way to provide creativity with the said religion, political, economical, social and geographical wa ys. The author, Charles Dickens have very wide thought about the current issues I his time that he came to develop a novel with story that relates to the whole wide world.I is necessary for him that he even does not have good experiences in writing had no acclaimed awards for his works he still make it expressive for him to provide meaningful Novel. The Novel in particular was really fascinating for the story it provides is viewers or readers, it catches most of the readers attention. It does not need o make some more great speculations for the story to make it elicit. It was interesting in many ways. With its thoughts and ideas, it is still interesting. List of Reference Dickens, C. Oliver Twist. New York. Penguin Books 2003.

Bread & Roses Essay

It is bread we fight for, but we fight for roses too. This quote, originally in a poem written by a man named James Oppenheim, embraced a fierce social movement created by large number distraught fabric workers who eventually created what we now know as the Bread & Roses Strike. This strike proudly showed the lengths one working under such unruly conditions would go in order to achieve respect, better working conditions, and enough food to feed their families.The book, Bread and Roses, written by Bruce Watson, is a novel concerning textile workers living in Lawrence, Massachusetts in the year 1912. Potential workers flocked to the city of Lawrence to better their lives, many of which soon realized posters and advertisements beckoning them to join in and share the citys riches did not prove to be as true as they claimed. Bruce Watson illustrates the working conditions of textile workers during this time period and proves as a reminder that during times of struggle, you run into yo ur rights.Effective January 1, 1912, a new law was passed reducing the numbers of hours one could work. The workers wouldnt have had a problem with this reduction if there was no trim down in pay, but there was. That seemingly small pay cut, for multiple families, proved to become a financial splinter in their lives as they struggled solar day after day to keep food and warmth circulating throughout their already-small homes.

Dealing with Suffering and Loss

Suffering and loss is a regular situation in the human life cycle, it is brisk to learn how to get a dogged with it so that it doesnt affect the rest of our lives negatively. In Scott Russell Sanderss Ten Reasons Why Well Always Need a Good floor he explains that one of the reasons is to help us deal and become aware of suffering, loss, and death. During our y outh we often dont consider the end of the life cycle.However, in life we ordain always encounter sorrow from a love ones death. The first time we experience or so sort of grieving it may be very catchy to handle and may cook depression. Stories help us prepare for moments of suffering, loss, and death with fictional experiences which show us how to deal with these unfortunate events. In the three short stories we read at least one character in each story is forced to deal with suffering, loss, or death.In the short story Bluffing by Gail Helgason, Liam has an unfortunate accident and experiences personal pain as well as the emotional pain of his deteriorating relationship with Gabriella. In two Words by Isabel Allende, Belisa Crepusculario is devastated by the death of her entire family due to their impoverished lifestyle and the love between her and the Colonel causes them to miss each other. In The Indisputable lading of the Ocean by Darryl Berger, Edmund deals with non being able to cipher his father and deals with the suffering of moving to a suburban area.First of all, geological fault up with your partner shadower cause heavy depression to some people and it makes us feel like weve lost soul important in our lives, likewise enduring a large amount of physical pain causes us to more careful to avoid feeling anything like that again. In Bluffing we do not get to meet how Gabriella and Liams relationship continues, however, the author leaves us to infer that the relationship is coming to an end. We are as well as left to infer how they both feel after they breakup.Gabriella feels th at Liam is not committed to the relationship after he broke the news to her that he would be leaving to go on a hiking trip for three months. When Gabriella stormed despatch into the woods it becomes clear that she is ending the relationship, however, the accident that happened to Liam honorable after she stormed off made it hard for her to leave him because of his condition, it would make her throwm superficial because Liam would think she is breaking up with him because he looks worse She knows in her bones that she can manage this way, for the rest of the rest of the afternoon, at least (Helgason 7).Another example of suffering and loss in Bluffing is when Liam is unfortunately attacked by a grizzly and receives many injuries to his body and also to his face. Liam has to suffer with this immense amount of physical pain. Liams confidence may also be lower due to his puffed up skin, mottled, with ridges of shiny, rubbery scar tissue(Helgason 7) which may cause depression because he doesnt want anyone to see him the way his is now, looking worse than before. We cannot allow breaking up with our partner or physical pain to affect us negatively for too long because these are both natural incidents of human life.Second of all, dealing with the death of a love one is often the most amount of emotional pain someone can experience in a lifetime, also not knowing if you will ever see a loved one can also cause depression. In the short story Two Words Belisa Crepusculario lives an impoverished lifestyle where her family is so poor they did not even have names to glide by their childrenand she grew up in an inhospitable land (Allende 1) making it hard for the Crepusculario family to survive.Tragically, Belisa had to bury four younger brothers and sisters. This is most likely the most horrifying incident Belisa will experience in her life time and what made it worse is that they were all very young. Surely, Belisa did a lot of grieving but she overcame her emotional pain and snip out on a journey for a positive life. She became widely popular and respected across the country even catching the attention of the Colonel for her fabulous skill with words. She enjoys her profession and the new life she has begun.This story of Belisas misfortune is a great lesson of human life because we cannot allow the grieving of a loved ones death to maneuver the rest of our lives, the same way Belisa beats the odds and begins a positive life There were few occupations she was measure up for. It seemed that selling words would be an honourable alternative (Allende 3). The next example of suffering and loss in Two Words is when Belisa tells the colonel the secret words and they control his mind at an important point in his career Those two words that were buried like two daggers in his gut (Allende 7).This shows loss because the Colonel is ineffectual to think straight because of his love for Belisa after she tells him the two words. He doesnt know if he will ever see her again and he is constantly worried about that. This shows us how not being able to see someone you love can affect you negatively. In two words Belisas grieving of her siblings and the love between Belisa and the Colonel are two examples that show us how to deal with suffering and loss.Not being able to see a family member or friend is similar to losing someone, however, we still have hope that we will one day meet them again, and being forced to change your lifestyle can cause suffering. In The Indisputable Weight of the Ocean a little gentleman by the name of Edmund Kelley has a father who is a mystery to him. The author explains, For as long as he could remember, it had just been the two of them (Berger 1). Since Edmund is an incredibly intelligent ten year old he has surely wondered if his father is actually just away for work for so many years.His father being away for so long makes Edmund feel as though he has lost him, however, he still has hope that one day his father will return, therefore he does not grieve like he would if he found out that his father is dead. The next example of suffering in the short story is not between two or more humans, it is between Edmund and his changing life. To Edmunds discomposure he and his mom have to leave their isolated lives on the acreage and move to a more populated suburban area.Since Edmund is anti-social towards children his own age it is hard for him to be around them all the time Edmund did not have much use for other children. The only time he saw any was when they went into town for groceries, and what he saw he did not like (Berger 1). Edmund notices that his mother is only searching for a better life for the both of them Edmund was not without consideration for his mom. And because he did not want to be an extra burden on her, he tried to cope with his new situation (Berger 2). He tried his hardest to never speak out about the suffering he is going through.In these two examples from this short story we learn how to deal with not being able to see a loved one and not knowing when or if you will see them again, and we learn how to cope with new situations that often occur in ones life. Overall, some of the characters in the three short stories all have to face suffering and/or loss in a variety of ways. All the different situations take us how to deal with these real life experiences so that suffering and loss doesnt affect the rest of our lives negatively. We learn how to deal with a deteriorating relationship and physical pain from accidents.We also learn how to deal with the emotional pain of a deceased loved one and not knowing if you will ever see someone you fell in love with. The last two situations we learn how to deal with are, not being able to see a family member for a long time and the suffering of changing your lifestyle or where you live. Instead of learning from our own mistakes like we are always told to do when were growth up, stories allow us to ne ver make those mistakes ourselves, but learn from the mistakes that the characters have made.

Climate Change and National Security Essay

That same month, the UN Security Councilat the initiative of the UK governmentheld its first-ever debate on the potential impact of mode change on peace and security. In October 2007, the Nobel committee recognized this emerging threat to peace and security by awarding former vice professorship Al Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change its peace prize. In November 2007, wo think tanks, the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) and the Center for a tender American Security (CNAS), released another report on the issue, concluding from a range of possible scenarios of climate change that, We already know enough to respect that the cascading consequences of unchecked climate change are to include a range of security problems that will have dire global consequences. 2 The new bet in climate change and national security has been a valuable warning about the potential security consequences of global warming, but the proposed solutions that accompanied new-fashioned efforts have emphasized broader climate policy rather than specific responses to security threats.Because the links between climate change and national security are seemly of concern in their own right, and because some significant climate change is inevitable, strategies that go beyond long-run efforts to rein in greenhouse gas emissions are required. This report sharpens the connections between climate change and national security and recommends specific policies to address the security consequences of climate change for the United States. In all areas of climate change policy, adaptation and mitigation (reducing greenhouse gas emissions) should be viewed as complements rather than competing alternativesand the national security dimension is no exception. Some policies will be targeted at adaptation, most notably risk-reduction and preparedness policies at home and abroad.These could spare the United States the need to mobilize its military later to rescue people a nd to oppose regional disorderand would ensure a more effective response if such mobilization was nonetheless necessary. Others will focus on mitigation, 2 CSIS/CNAS, The fester of Consequences The Foreign Policy and National Security Implications of Global Climate Change, November 2007 available at http//www. cnas. org/climatechange. 2 which is almost universally accepted as an essential subprogram of the response to climate change. Mitigation efforts will need to be international and involve deep changes in the worlds major economies, such as those of China and India. As a result, the processes of working together to craft and implement them provide opportunities to advance American security interests.

Black Women and the Abolition of Slavery

Rachel Weeping for Her Children Black Women and the Abolition of Slavery by Margaret Washington Photograph of Sojourner Truth, 1864. (Gilder Lehrman Collection) During the point leading up to the Civil War, inkiness women all over the North comprised a stalwart nevertheless now largely forgotten abolitionist army. In myriad ways, these race-conscious women worked to bring immediate emancipation to the S step to the foreh. Anti-slavery Northern black women felt the sting of oppression personally.Like the slaves, they too were victims of color prejudice some had been born in Northern bondage others had family members still enslaved and many interacted daily with self-emancipated battalion who constantly feared being re round of drinksed south. Anti-slavery women such as Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman were only the most famous of the abolitionists. in the first place either of these heroines came on the scene and earlier anti-slavery was an organized movement, black women in l ocal Northern communities had quietly turned to activism finished their church work, literary societies, and philanthropic organizations.These women found time for political activism in between managing households, raising children, and working. In the late 1820s, Zions African Methodist Episcopal Church in unseasoned York City, Bethel Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, and the African Meetinghouse in Boston were centers of female anti-slavery activity. Black women proclaimed that their cause was let the oppressed go free. They organized bazaars to promote the purchase of goods made from free labor, met in sewing circles to make clothing for those fleeing bondage, and raised silver for Freedoms Journal, the nations first black newspaper.In 1830, when Boston editor William Lloyd Garrison proposed his idea of publishing a newspaper devoted solely to immediate emancipation, a committee of black women began raising funds for it. The first copy of the Liberator appeared on January 1, 1831, with strong financial backing from black women. At their literary-society meetings, black women switched from reading European classics to discussing the Liberator and anti-slavery pamphlets, and inviting male speakers to part on the evils of slavery.Throughout the 1830s, black women engaged heavily in activism. They vowed to heed the enslaved mothers cry for children torn away and designated their dwellings as free domicils for those fleeing bondage. For example, Hester Lane of New York City, a successful black entrepreneur, used her home as an Underground Railroad station. Lane as well trave lead south to purchase enslaved children whom she freed and educated. Mary Marshalls sinister Sailors Boarding Home was another busy sanctuary.Marshall kept a vigilant eye out for refugees from bondage, and was determined that No one who had the courage to start should run down to reach the goal. Other black women organized petition drives, wrote anti-slavery poetry, ho sted traveling abolitionists, and organized fairs. By 1832, black women had formed the first female anti-slavery society in Salem, Massachusetts. They also held executive asideices in biracial female anti-slavery societies in Philadelphia, Boston, and elsewhere.Anti-slavery black men insisted that black women work only behind the scenes, but women sometimes refused to do so. In New York City, a group of black women confronted white authorities in a courtroom where several self-emancipated women were about to be returned to bondage. Black men impeach the female protesters of bringing everlasting shame and remorse upon the black community and upon themselves. In 1831, black women in Boston organized the African American egg-producing(prenominal) Intelligence Society. This organization became a forum for Maria Stewart, the first woman to speak earthly against slavery.Stewart proclaimed that she was called by God to address the issues of black emancipation and the rights of black wo men. We claim our rights, she asserted, as women and men, and we are not afraid of them that kill the body. Stewart also published a pamphlet in the Liberator on behalf of black women and the enslaved, but Bostons black male community censored Stewart for her public expressions and forced her into silence. She soon left the city. Although she never again spoke publicly, she remained active through womens organizations and conventions.She joined other black women who held office, served as delegates, and otherwise participated in the biracial womens anti-slavery conventions in 1837, 1838, and 1839. The anti-slavery movement took a more progressive turn in the 1840s, when the American Anti-Slavery Society (Garrisonians) welcomed women as officeholders and speakers. Most black women continued their quiet anti-slavery work, but some were outspoken. The first black woman to take the public stage for the American Anti-Slavery Society was Sojourner Truth.Born into slavery in 1797 among th e Hudson Valley Dutch and emancipated in adulthood, Truth was already know as a sermonizer when she joined the Garrisonians in 1844. She made anti-slavery speeches throughout New England, and in 1845, gave her first address at the American Anti-Slavery Societys annual convention. Sojourner Truth became known from Maine to Michigan as a popular and featured anti-slavery speaker. Truth published a Narrative of her life and used the proceeds to purchase a home and finance her abolitionist work. Another surge of radicalism occurred in 1850 with the passage of the Fugitive Slave equity.It decreed that any citizen could be enlisted in the service of a slave trader to capture an enslaved person, and it nullified the individual civil rights that a state guaranteed its citizens, including those formerly enslaved. That same year, Harriet Tubman, a thirty-year-old self-emancipated Marylander, began defying the Fugitive Slave Law by leading enslaved men, women, and children out of the South. With slave catchers lurking everywhere and a price on her head, Tubman safely conducted her charges through the Northern states and on to Canada.Mary Ann Shadd (Cary) was a twenty-five-year-old freeborn schoolteacher when the Fugitive Slave Law was passed. Inspired by her father, whom she described as a chief breakman on the Delaware Underground Railroad, Shadd soon moved to Canada and established herself as a militant abolitionist, potent emigrationist, and the first black woman newspaper editor (of the Provincial Freeman). In 1854, twenty-eight-year-old Frances Ellen Watkins (Harper) joined Sojourner Truth on the Garrisonian lecture circuit. Born into a well-connected Baltimore family, Watkins was a poet and teacher.She was drawn into the abolitionist struggle by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which rescinded the restrictions on slavery in the remaining territories acquired under the Louisiana Purchase. Watkins traveled throughout the Midwest, sometimes with Sojourner Truth. Watkins s poke eloquently of the wrongs inflicted upon her people she sold her books of poetry at anti-slavery lectures and used the proceeds to support the Underground Railroad. In 1858, Watkins joined black male leaders in Detroit and led a large group of angry citizens in storming the jailhouse.The group attempted to remove from protective custody a black traitor to their cause, who had intended to exhibit the operations of the Underground Railroad. Despite the Fugitive Slave Law, the Underground Railroad remained the hearts blood of black resistance. Black woman abolitionists played a vital role in this work. They were often the ones who intercepted refugees who provided them with food, clothing, shelter, health care, and spiritual and psychological comfort and who directed them to the next station. Women sometimes confronted slave catchers and kidnappers, who were often right on the heels of the fugitives. Caroline Loguen, the wife of Syracuse, New York, abolitionist the Reverend Jerma in Loguen, answered many a midnight knock during her husbands frequent absences. Once she and her sister successfully fought off slave catchers attempting to enter her home in pursuit of fugitives. In 1858, Anna Murray Douglass, wife of black leader Frederick Douglass, hosted John Brown, the famous white abolitionist, for a month. Brown was in hiding after having been charged with murdering pro-slavery farmers in Missouri. In the Douglass home, Brown perfected his plans for the raid on Harpers Ferry.In an 1859 meeting with Brown in Maryland just before the assault on Harpers Ferry, Douglass gave him ten dollars from the wife of a Brooklyn couple, the J. N. Gloucesters, who like Douglass himself were close to Brown. Along with the money, Mrs. Gloucester sent her best wishes. When Brown was captured, tried, and sentenced to death, black woman abolitionists sent money to his wife, Mary, and wrote letters expressing their deep regard for her husband. Frances Ellen Watkins also sent gi fts as well as one of her poems, Bury Me in a Free Land, to Browns condemned men.During the antebellum era, black woman abolitionists moved, in keeping with the urgency of the times, from quiet activism to militancy. By 1858, even Sojourner Truth, the archpacifist, recognized that war with the South was inevitable if black people were to obtain their freedom. Black women furthered the goal of emancipation during the Civil War by continuing their abolition work. Harriet Tubman offered her services to the Union Army. Sojourner Truth lectured throughout the Midwest, where she confronted threatening pro-slavery (so-called copperhead) mobs.Black women organized petition campaigns to Congress and the president they sent food and clothing to the Union front lines for destitute blacks and they went into Union-occupied areas to provide education for black refugees. After the freedom Proclamation was signed on January 1, 1863, black women immediately began working on the next phase of their missionthe task of uplifting their race as a free people. Margaret Washington is a professor of history at Cornell University. Her publications include Sojourner Truths America (2009) and A Peculiar People Slave righteousness and Community-Culture among the Gullahs (1998)