Arendt And Freedman: Political Freedom

Political freedom is an ideal for both Arendt and Friedman. As political theorists they offer not only definitions to understand what political freedom is for them, but what necessary preconditions must exist in order for their ideal to be vitalized. Arendt explains political freedom as the right to be a participator in government. She implies that this means more than voting for a representative or having the opportunity to run for office. Arendt advocates that political freedom requires equal participation on behalf of all citizens and the involvement in politics is the most important part of an individual’s life. Friedman states that political freedom is the absence of coercion with the necessary precondition of economic freedom. Arendt and Friedman have different understandings of what political freedom is, but within their differences are similarities. Understanding what Arendt does not view as political freedom is essential in understanding what is political freedom because it helps in establishing the necessary means involved in obtaining political freedom. † should be no reason for us to mistake civil rights for political freedom, or to equate these preliminaries of civilized government with the very substance of a free republic. (Arendt P220) Arendt has established civil rights as something other than political freedom. Civil rights apply to liberation and not political freedom because civil rights do not necessarily assume the presence of freedom. Civil rights can be granted to a population under the rule of a tyrant in the form of a law, but when the population is not part of the formation of such a law then political freedom does not exist. According to Arendt, the presence of poverty does not permit the presence of political freedom. If individuals are forced to focus their efforts to fulfill biological needs such as food and shelter then they cannot possibly be political. Capitalism also prevents the existence of Arendt’s political freedom because capitalism is based on consumption. When the members of society are focused on obtaining goods and material possessions they become just as preoccupied as those in poverty. So capitalism creates greed and creates unnecessary needs and desires that inhibit political freedom. Political freedom requires an absence of as many social conditions as it does a presence of other conditions. Political freedom, as discussed in â€Å"The Revolutionary Tradition and Its Lost Treasure,† obliges the presence of a population who thinks in terms of â€Å"we† rather than â€Å"I. † When everyone in a society acts for a better community and thinks in terms of the community, they will be able to exist politically free. When the focus of the individual shifts from the private interests created under capitalism to a public interest necessary for political freedom, more will be done to benefit society as a whole as opposed to individuals in a private realm. Learning to escape the private realm and understand that of the public means to understand the possibility of a greater good found in working together rather than many separate smaller goods held by only certain individuals. When there are individuals with separate smaller goods there has to be individuals with their own separate failure and lack of essential good. Milton Friedman does not offer the same definition for political freedom, thus his means for obtaining political freedom are also separate from Arendt’s. Friedman presumes that economic freedom must exist in order for political freedom to exist, and the means to true economic freedom is through the capitalist free market. Friedman writes, â€Å"History suggests only that capitalism is a necessary condition for political freedom. † (P10) The free market should take care of it self, be free from forced government intervention, and thus establish an environment in which coercion does not rule. Friedman believes that it is the power instilled in Washington D. C. that is responsible for the current coercion through their economic power. The economic power of the government is derived through the process of taxation, a process of coercing the citizens of the state to fund an organization against their will to do the jobs that capitalism, when left to its own devices, will achieve. Friedman suggests that government should focus on military effort, and not issues unrelated. He says: This danger we cannot avoid. But we needlessly intensify it by continuing the widespread governmental intervention in areas unrelated to the military defense of the nation and by undertaking new governmental programs – from medical care for the aged to lunar exploration. Friedman P202) So Friedman believes that government intervention leads to the collapse of political freedom. He goes on to discuss his fear of intervention. I believe that we shall be able to preserve and extend freedom despite the size of the military programs and despite the economic powers already concentrated inWashington. But we shall be able to do so only if we awake to the threat that we face, only if we persuade our fellow men that free institutions offer a surer, if perhaps at times slower, route to the ends they seek than the coercive power of the state. Friedman P202) Political Freedom for Friedman is then merely the absence of government coercion and the presence of an economically free population that, through the free market, can actually take care and supervise themselves. Friedman is relying on the same factors to create political freedom that Arendt sees as inhibiting freedom. That is, he sees a capitalist free market as the necessary means to actually bring people voluntarily together, not coercively. Friedman says:Exchange can therefore bring about co-ordination without coercion. A working model of a society organized through voluntary exchange is a free private enterprise exchange economy – what we have been calling competitive capitalism. (Friedman P13)So Friedman is actually advocating that capitalism is not as competitive as it appears, and that it actually requires citizens to work together and thus benefit each other through their actions. This is similar to what Arendt signifies as thinking in terms of â€Å"we† rather than â€Å"I,† yet it is the exact ingredient that Arendt classifies as creating the â€Å"I. † It is peculiar that such contrasting opinions and explanation actually lead to the same ideal. Friedman and Arendt offer opposing means of obtaining political freedom, but there are similarities in what their means accomplish before the existence of political freedom. Both want a society in which individuals do something for each other, they work together for a greater good. The difference is that Arendt wants the cooperation to be based on politics while Friedman wants the cooperation based on free enterprise. Friedman wants less government involvement because he understands such involvement to be the basis of coercion. Friedman would rather have individuals voluntarily come together than be forced to come together. He sees political freedom as being free from the control of the state, free to evolve independent of government influence, and free to decide how to evolve. Friedman wants the government to have limited power because free enterprise will thrive in the absence of government intervention. Economic freedom will be created in the free enterprise and political freedom is the result. Another similarity between Arendt’s and Friedman’s differing views is the requirement of economic freedom. Although it is quite a major aspect for Friedman, Arendt does not focus directly on the topic. Arendt is just as much a supporter of economic freedom because she acknowledges that a state dealing with poverty and the fulfillment of basic needs cannot deal with political freedom. Economic freedom is the absence of such struggles and the presence of a means to be politically free. The similarity through presence of economic freedom is divided by the role of government. For Friedman political freedom is the absence of coercion, namely governmental coercion, not the presence of a highly involved government that Arendt advocates. Arendt’s political freedom is not the absence of government, merely the absence of representative government. She sees the concern of private life being too dominate under a representative system because, † the voter acts out of concern with his private life and well-being, and the residue of power he still holds in his hands resembles rather the reckless coercion with which a blackmailer forces his victim into obedience than the power that arises out of joint action and joint deliberation. (Arendt P 273) She is saying that representation leads to the problem of coercion, and it is coercion that Friedman sees necessary is not existing in the existence of political freedom. Without a direct democracy at the basis of a highly involved government political freedom is impossible because there is too much corrupt behavior and focus on private interests when the majority elects a minority to make the decisions for the state. Arendt envisions a society in which all of its members equally partake in the decision making of the government and they all work for the good of each other, not for a private good. Arendt establishes the aspects of life that have been private in the past as needing to be public in an effort to prevent corruption and maintain political freedom. Friedman does not advocate the same direct democracy that Arendt envisions. Instead, he expects the free market to essentially rule itself and take on the duties of Arendt’s government in the form of free enterprise. He sees the government as the cause of the coercion and presumes that the power should be taken out of the government. So this is an opposite response to Arendt’s view that the government should become larger, so large that all citizens are involved and have an equal say, thus preventing the possibility of coercion. Both Arendt and Friedman see coercion as preventing political freedom and both offer different means of ridding society of coercion. Political freedom is not an easily definable term. It is much like love, god, and friendship in that it has different meanings for different people at different times. Political freedom is about both the means of obtaining the ideal as well as the ideal itself. Friedman and Arendt present what they presume to be the means and the ends of political freedom, but neither is completely right or entirely wrong. It does not seem possible to create a set definition as to what political freedom is, much less what the appropriate means of obtaining political freedom are. It seems more important to try to distinguish certain common traits of what political freedom is rather than attempt to create a set definition. The common traits shared by Arendt and Friedman are that economic freedom and absence of coercion are necessary for political freedom. Political freedom, for both theorists, requires the action of a public community and not private individuals. They do not agree about the role of government, nor do they agree on the form government should take. Although it is important to distinguish what are and are not characteristics of political freedom, it is more important to understand that political freedom cannot be defined. Political freedom can be speculated about, but will not be truly comprehended until it is actualized. Only when political freedom exists will it be understood.

The Great Gatsby, Chapter 8

Owen Marshall Honors Language Arts, Lohman March 27, 2013 Chapter 8 This chapter begins with Nick talking to Gatsby after the horrible events of the night before. Gatsby tells Nick how he spent his night waiting for Daisy to see him just for her to ignore him the whole time. He then tells Nick about why he fell in love with Daisy, and why he is still so deeply attached to her. Nick then leaves for work, shouting to Gatsby reassuring words seeing as he is obviously lost and depressed.After Nick leaves we are told about the actions of grief stricken George Wilson. We are told that George believed that the driver of the car that killed his wife was Gatsby and George acts upon this information. He spends the day making his way to Gatsby’s house and upon his arrival kills Gatsby in his pool and then ends his own life. Suspense This chapter creates a very deep suspense through the actions of George Wilson.Fitzgerald cultivates this suspense for the climax of the novel by describing George’s actions with little detail, describing them as if we are being told by a police report. He skirts what actually occurred, instead describing the setting in vivid detail. He mentions the â€Å"†¦cluster of leave†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (pg 170) that are in the pool foreshadowing Gatsby’s fate by having the leaves represent the end of the season and the end of his life. Fitzgerald uses this suspense to keep the reader intensely reading keep Gatsby’s death a shock.

Marketing solving problems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing solving problems - Essay Example 267). Most of the new products introduced into the market constantly face stiff competition from the related products. In this context, the â€Å"sinking† grocery store should constitute a credible marketing mix for its existing and newly introduced commodities. Basically, organisations should establish, ratify, and embrace a considerable promotional mix when marketing their products (Banhegyi 2008, p. 236). Contextually, the concerned products should be sold at a considerable price based on its quality and other pricing provisions. The grocery store sells diverse kinds of foods from various places as well as cultures, it basically sell them again to customers. Appropriate marketing will obviously help in this context. The concerned commodities should be distributed to the right places and at the right time. All these are should be done using the most appropriate method of promotion or any other viable means of advertisement. For the grocery to generate an appropriate and practical marketing mix, its products must be of high quality, nutritious, and be appealing to consumers (Lamb, Hair & McDaniel 2011, p. 78). The prices of the products must be affordable and right to the customers (value for money). Accordingly, the grocery store should recognize and satisfy its consumers’ demands. Additionally, the product usage, nutrition, and variety should be taken into consideration. The store should diversify its product areas ranging from fruits to fresh vegetable, snack food and sandwiches among others. The appearance and the perception of the consumers are also necessary when the grocery store is trying to introduce a new product to the market. The name, colour, and size of the product should be carefully established to ensure that it satisfies the customer’s demands. For the grocery store to obtain increased sales of

Marketing communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Marketing communication - Essay Example BMW AG is a global multinational car and truck manufacturer based in Bavaria, Munich in Germany. The research will prove that a strategic communication plan should respond to the direct needs of the organization. In order to establish the company global position, BMW AG should develop a communication plan that responds to the unique needs of the organization. Essentially, a communication plan should attempt to the convey information to the stakeholder. As such, the plan should improve the company’s image. For the purpose of this content analysis, we will focus on the interest level and the complexity of thing distance communication plan. The research question in this case is In formulating a communication strategy, Kerr and Patti (2014, p. 24) advises that it is essential that the developers formulate a function to contribute to the understanding of stakeholders and their views as well as reconciling organizational weaknesses. It is important to settle financial goals alongside financial and economic goals set by others in the management team. Schroeder (2014, p. 28) argues that the overall strategic management of corporations is inseparable from strategic management of relationships with stakeholders. Thus, in quest to formulate a communications strategy, it will be essential to identify and engage with strategic stakeholders to deal with the crises. Nonetheless, Bochenek and Blili (2013, p. 153) criticize such an approach by their assessment that corporate communication strategy should not be entirely beholden to stakeholders, or only be a two-way communication between groups. As such, it will be possible to combine an understanding of stakeholder, vi ews and the surrounding environment along with a corporate perspective on strategic issues. According to Ungerman and Myslivcovà ¡ (2014, p. 49), communication can be used additionally to resolve issues

The Cowboy Phenomenon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Cowboy Phenomenon - Essay Example Finally, the cowboy is aggressive because nothing can stop him from achieving any goal he wishes to achieve (Ruud, Geoff & Hugo 156). â€Å"There are some things a man just can’t run away from† The first characteristic of the cowboy involves certain aspects of his lives that are mandatory. Consequently, the cowboy must perform these functions because he has no other options. The functions could even be dangerous to the cowboy’s existence. However, the cowboy performs the functions to satisfy significant expectations in his life. For example, in Johnny Guitar†, Johnny realizes that he is in love with Vienna. This love for Vienna enables the viewers to encounter the first cowboy characteristic of Johnny Guitar. This is because Johnny Guitar maintains Vienna’s company after the self-declared reformed. Guitar knows about Vienna’s possible involvement in the robbery because of criminal history, which Vienna already has. However, this does not stop Johnny Guitar from saving his love, Vienna. Johnny Guitar is aware that it is a great risk to save Vienna after her capture but the love he has inspires him (Ray). Consequently, Charles Cosby displays similar cowboy characteristics in â€Å"Cocaine Cowboys 2†. The only difference is that Cosby’s inspiration is the urge to be successful in the cocaine business, not love. Cosby has exemplary courage, which enables him to write letters to Blanco. Evidently, Griselda Blanco is a queen pin who most people fear. Therefore, Cosby’s decision to write the letter to Blanco is synonymous with the first characteristic of the cowboy. This is because Cosby dreams of also leading the cocaine business. Later he establishes the cocaine business and is a rich man because he was not afraid to approach the godmother (Corben & Perry). â€Å"A man ought to do what he thinks is right† The second characteristic of the cowboy encourages cowboys to do what they think is right rega rdless of other people’s views. Johnny Guitar helps Vienna out of the burning bar without considering if Vienna was right or wrong. Johnny Guitar believes that men ought to protect the respective women who they love. Therefore, he saves Vienna from all troubles that face her like when Emma convinces the men to kill Vienna. Similarly, Cosby engages in certain behavior that people would otherwise consider immoral. For example, he sells cocaine in the city without considering the dangers, which he poses to people. Cosby is equally aware of the consequences of the cocaine business. He risks serving jail time like Blanca or even facing more punishments that are serious. However, this knowledge does not stop Cosby from engaging in the dangerous drug business. His only concern is to be successful with the drugs, which he realizes when he owns the 40 Million-cocaine business (Ray). â€Å"If everything isn’t black and white, I say â€Å"why the hell not?† Finally, the c owboy is aggressive in everything he does because of what Johnny Guitar and Charles Cosby reveal in their respective situations. For instance, Johnny Guitar ensures that he saves Vienna when Emma suggests killing Vienna. It is among the most dangerous decisions he makes in the entire movie. This is because of Vienna’s past and the anger, which Emma and her gang have for Vienna. Obviously, Emma would also kill anyone who was on Vienna’s side. However, that could not prevent Johnny Guitar from facing the angry

Welfare Distrubution in the United States of America Research Paper

Welfare Distrubution in the United States of America - Research Paper Example Education, health or certain other forms of insurance may reduce economic uncertainty. Education and health augment the value of an individual, thus making the population more capable to deal with the economic uncertainty caused by various factors, including the prevailing market conditions. Population may also become more secured through the insurances in health and social issues which precisely cut down the financial costs of uncertainty. (Garfinkel, Rainwater & Smeeding, 2). The welfare state in the United States of America is considered as an â€Å"under achiever†.  It can be acknowledged from the past data that the social programs initiated by the USA came into exercise much later than several other nations. Currently several important parts of the American welfare state can be considered as inadequately developed, or many essential measures are missing in the system. The United States seems to make lesser expenditure on social programs in comparison to many other democ racies. Also, the rates of poverty and inequality are much higher in the United States (Howard, 1).  The United States can be recognized as a territory of prospects or opportunities.   However, that also does not imply equality. Nathan Glazer, a professor of sociology and education at the Harvard University, in his argument, commented on United States as the most imbalanced amongst other inexpensively developed countries.   According to statistical data, it can be realized that the United States in comparison to other countries like Europe, redistributes considerably less social benefits.   Such less redistribution are the consequences of greater inequality in income obtained before tax and an indistinct income distribution in the United States. Although the United States is conventional in its political principles, yet it can often be recognized with moderate courses of action in welfare, thus the country clearly representing uniqueness and nonjudgmental processes. (Brunson ).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This report is mainly prepared to focus on providing arguments against the distribution of welfare in the United States. There are many views in support of the welfare system in the USA, which reflect that the welfare system in the USA increases economic growth, productivity, and efficiency of the country. (Garfinkel, Rainwater & Smeeding, 1). However this report would bring out certain aspects, which would clearly indicate that the welfare distribution in the United States of America has many negative impacts as well, which are backed by evidences and arguments. The studies and researches previously done on the concerned topic would be taken into consideration and other sources on the welfare distribution in the USA and its effects as provided by different authors would be utilized as sources. The report would bring out the impacts of the present system of welfare distribution prevailing in the United States, thereby providing arguments against the system , and reflecting upon the negative effects of the current system.    Arguments against the Welfare Distribution in the USA:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The government of the United States strictly lacks a widespread and productive welfare system.   On the other hand, the alternative governmental programs seem to be better than the welfare system to a greater extent.     For instance, in the year 1999, a family of three had received remunerations of $164 per month from the welfare services, while the allowance for food stamp for the same family was at $329 per month. Thus, it was economically more rational to take food stamps provided by the alternative government measures instead of receiving welfare benefits.   In the present scenario, food stamps and government housing are

Recommendations for further studies Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Recommendations for further studies - Article Example It may help them in taking adequate care and in designing their courses in a manner that takes into consideration such errors and help their students in successfully overcoming them. The copula, or rather the omission of the copula is one such error which is frequently observed in case of foreign students learning English, particularly Arabic students since there is no such verb in Arabic language structure. This paper on â€Å"The Omission of English Copula (verb to be) by Arabic students attempts to analyze various studies and historical evidences that supports such a fact and understand the difficulties faced by Arabic students.  Various researchers, have frequently, relied on error analysis as the means of evaluating the occurrence of certain types of errors made by L2 learners to understand the pattern as well as reasons behind such errors. Richards et al (1996) states that error analysis have been frequently conducted by researchers to classify and develop strategies which may help the students in learning any language and obtain information on general complexities experienced by the students and help the teachers in preparing appropriate course materials. Michaelides (1990) suggests that the methodical evaluation of errors committed by students are of immense significance to researchers and all those concerned since it offers valuable insights into the students psyche in comprehending a foreign language (Abu-Jarad, 2008). It is on account of such reasons that this study is focused on the errors committed by Arab students of English language with regard to copula omission. A discussion of issues related to various topics such as: an overview of the Arabic language and its system; the difference between Arabic and English language structure in terms of speaking, writing etc; as well as the omission of copula in Arabic is presented in the literature review to afford a comprehensive understanding of such an issue, to the readers as well as future

Health Discrimination in Hong Kong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Health Discrimination in Hong Kong - Essay Example Body In order to fix the health inequities which relate to gender in Hong Kong, possible health care priorities in health policies must include HIV/AIDS screening and treatment opportunities open to all citizens regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Another health priority would be the improved access to women seeking maternal and child care before, during, and after their pregnancy. Gender inequities can sometimes be apparent in relation to access of healthcare programs for women sex workers and for homosexuals (Abdullah, et.al., 2000). These gender inequities must be set aside especially as far as AIDS screening and treatment is concerned. Instead, reforms must include the establishment of mandatory annual screening for STDs and AIDS among sex workers (Wong, 2003). This access must be made available to male, female, including homosexual sex workers and anyone seeking access to these same health services. No discrimination in terms of gender must be made before such services c an be accessed. This mandatory screening would help manage the AIDS problem in Hong Kong, and ensure that the numbers of AIDS sufferers would decrease. Health reforms should also target the prioritization of services for health workers in relation to AIDS. AIDS has become one of the rapidly growing health issues in the world; it is also one of the most preventable diseases, especially with proper health education and the application of other preventative remedies, like mandatory annuals AIDS and STD screening (Wong, et.al., 2006). Access of sex workers to health services is often hampered by their limited financial resources; moreover, the health system does not make these screenings available to all sex workers due to their limited resources. In effect, future health policies must prioritize the allocation of funds for these mandatory annual screenings for high-risk women and other sex workers (Wong, et.al., 2006). Considerations of income or gender must not be made a basis for who the recipients of these screening services. Inequities in this regard must be neutralized. Future health policies on addressing the gender disparities in health must also include the establishment of outreach clinics for sex workers (Wong, 2003). These specialist centers would help ensure that female sex workers would be able to gain access to essential services based on their convenience. The clinics would be open at hours convenient to them and it would also reduce the stigma from the rest of society (Wong, 2003). In other words, health reform also means accepting the fact that some females work in the sex industry, and the fact that these activities are basically against the law should not be their basis for gaining access to essential health services (Wong, 2003). Female sex workers are fully aware of the fact that there is a stigma against them from the general population; for which reason, they also prefer not to access health services from the main hospitals for fear of bein g stigmatized. Moreover, society, including hospitals can indeed discriminate against them in terms of equal access to health services (Wong, et.al., 2006). Future reforms in health care must therefore include a more specific program which would

No need Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

No need - Essay Example After taking the introduction to conflict and resolution class, I learnt that there are many theories that one can use to understand the reason of conflict such as the nested theory, which reasonably analyses the reason of conflict. Indeed, I learnt the importance of culture and religion in the field of conflict and resolution as well as how they relate with the idea of peace building. This paper will be about the ideas, theories, and readings that I believe are important to conflict and resolution. Indeed, one can notice that the field of conflict and resolution contains various theories and ideas that are sometimes different yet they all try to answer the same questions such as why countries conflict. They also seek to explain human behavior. Furthermore, to me culture is very important in conflict and resolutions. This is because culture is deeply rooted in one’s past experiences, and as such, we can view it as a derivative of one’s own experiences (Avruch 20). Indee d, any person worldview is determined to a big extent by his/her culture, and therefore, culture is quite important in conflict resolution. In fact, from personal experiences, a person can build his/her new opinions and believes or become more attached to his/her pervious opinion. As a result, when two people have different opinions over an idea and none of them has enough information about the other side background, this will lead to conflict. Ideally, the two will conflict because each will try to convince the other side with his/her opinion and not being aware of the reasons that made the other side reject his/her opinion. One of the theories I learned this semester in the conflict resolution class is the Nested theory that I believe helps to explain the reason why conflict exist. The Nested model of conflict is based on the structural nature of the conflicts. In the nested model, Dugan identified three levels of conflict. These levels include the issue specific level, relational level, structural subsystem level, and structural system level. The levels are interrelated and adopt a pattern where the narrow types or levels of conflict nest within the broader level (Dugan 14). We can view these levels as the spider web where it starts with small circles surrounded by larger circles (Kotev paragraph 1). In the middle of the web, we have the individual surrounded by the community and then the larger circles represent the society (Kotev paragraph 1). In order to understand the reason of conflict, one should first look at the individual and what is around him/her to determine what kind of intuitions and community can affect his/her way of thinking. In addition, one can use the larger circle to see how the society affects the communities and the individuals. According to this theory, in resolving conflicts, we should first critically analyze the conflict and locate it within the category of conflicts where it fits. Having done that, we should then proceed to find the best way to resolve the root causes of the conflict. The reason why I mainly focused on culture, religion, and the nested theory is that I come from a religious country to a western country, which is the United States. I noticed that many American students and citizens do not know a lot about the Arab countries culture and religion. In fact, many think that Qatar, UAE and KSA are one country. For example, many westerns view the Arab women as oppressed women and that they are forced by men

The Right To Fashion Among Individuals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Right To Fashion Among Individuals - Essay Example The philosophy of fashion speaks about how style is different from fashion wearing clothes means helping to give one’s body a sense of appearance that helps to define ourselves. Most people can understand what kind of a person one is just by the clothes he or she wears. Having an eye for detail or for fashionable clothing helps to up a person’s level of appearance in the eyes of both her/himself and in the eyes of other people around him. Not being able to reveal fashion through personal senses, or not being able to dress oneself in the kind of clothing one wants to is equivalent to the same feeling of having one’s body chained and not being able to do anything about it. Fashion is like freedom and liberation from the monotonous lives that most people live in the world today. It helps to bring about change and color in a person’s outlook towards life. It helps a person to feel light and also helps to alter his or her mood. This was fashion – dressin g oneself as one wanted to and trying to bring about a sort of look and appearance in the clothing of a person. This same activity and process were carried out in different parts o the world with respect to different kinds of clothing that were born from the creativity and uniqueness that different people had. Today, they are known as designers; however, in those days, they were known as the harbingers of freedom and creativity. Fashion is restricted now though, in many parts of the world and women are not given their due right to dress as they please.

History of the Violin and Bow Essay Example for Free

History of the Violin and Bow Essay Stringed instruments such as the violin and its accompanying variations have been used in music for thousands of years. The first officially recorded use of the violin was during medieval European times. The earliest form of the violin was referred to as a Fiddle and the person playing it was termed as a Fiddler. During the 15th century though, the violins began taking on a new shape and began to carve its own history in music. The evolution of the violin continued into the 16th century when it developed what was to become its final look and shape. It is this artistic representation of a violin that we still recognize and use in our present time. An Italian from Cremona named Andrea Amati, is recognized as the founder of the most famous violin making school. The violin making school is not a structure per se but more of a school of thought and characterization. It was during this time that an explosion in violin making reached as far as Europe even as Cremona remained as the home of the best violin makers in the world. The most famous of these violin making families are the Amati, Guarneri, Antonio Stradivari, Rugerri, and Bergonzi. In the music world, the finest musicians openly acknowledge the Stradivari and Guarneri violins to be the best violins ever made over the past 150 years. The Violin is a member of the string instrument family and is capable of producing a 3 octave sound range when played by skilled musicians. The sound a violin creates depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are the type of wood used to produce the body of the instrument and the type of metal strings used.. It is usually 14 inches in length and uses metal strings tightened to various degrees on tuning pegs, to produce its exceptional sound quality. A typical violin is composed of the following parts: Chin rest, F-hole, strings, tuning pegs, scroll, tailpiece, fine tuners, bridge, belly, fingerboard, neck, and back plate. The sound is produced by the instrumentalists skimming a bow over the metal strings. Violins are usually constructed to withstand the 17 pounds of downward force that is regularly applied to the 4 metal strings. But just like any stringed instrument, the Violin in itself will fail to make sweet music for the listeners if not strummed with a bow. The bow is the instrument by which a Violinist makes his instrument sing. His expertise in the use of the bow produces the violins varying tones and pitches. How a bow is shaped and the different parts that form the bow all work together to form the best bow for violin playing. A bow is most often described as an arc shaped piece of wood that has a flat horsehair piece stretched and tensioned across the wood. The tips of the bow are pointed on one end and rounded on the other. Although the violin enjoyed various incarnations as it gained popularity and was played by chamber and orchestra musicians, the violin bow did not keep up with these changes. This led to a total redesign that resulted in what is known as the modern bow. The modern bow is believed to have first made its appearance in France during the 19th century at the hands of the Tourte family. The Tourte family is considered by the violin historians to be the bow maker equivalent of the Stradivari family in violin making. The modern bow has more tension and resistance and uses Pemarnbuco wood as wood stick. Sometimes, makers will add subtle modifications to the bow in the hopes of producing a more handy and usable bow. Admittedly, not much has changed in the 150 year history of the bow. The violin and bow can be thought of in terms of milk and cookies or coffee with cream. One always enhances the best aspects of the other in order to produce a very significant experience for the person whose auditory and sensory perceptions participate in the resulting enjoyable final product of the merging of the 2 instruments. Work Cited Psarianos, Peter. (2007). Violin Bow. How Products Are Made. Retrieved October 14, 2007 from http://www. madehow. com/Volume-2/Violin-Bow. html. Skinner, Matthew. (N. A. ). The Violin and It’s History. Retrieved, October 13, 2007 from http://www. nelson. planet. org. nz/~matthew/cbt. html Sprenger, Christoph Sprenger, Raffael. (N. A. ). The History of the Violin. Retrieved October 13, 2007 from http://www. sprengerviolins. com/e/violin_history. htm.

Cognitive and Emotional Intelligence paper sample Essay Example for Free

Cognitive and Emotional Intelligence paper sample Essay DECLARATION I declare that this assessment is my own work, based on my own personal research/study . I also declare that this assessment, nor parts of it, has not been previously submitted for any other unit/module or course, and that I have not copied in part or whole or otherwise plagiarised the work of another student and/or persons. I have read the ACAP Student Plagiarism and Academic Misconduct Policy and understand its implications. I also declare, if this is a practical skills assessment, that a Client/Interviewee Consent Form has been read and signed by both parties, and where applicable parental consent has been obtained. Organisational Behaviour Assessment 1 Two important differences in organisational behaviour are cognitive intelligence and emotional intelligence. The following essay evaluates theoretical and practical strengths and limitations of both intelligences and discusses the application of each in modern organisations. Modern organisations face differing challenges to those of the previous century, high turn-over, globalization and the rapid development of ever changing technology all require special attention. It has never been more important to find the right person for the right job. General mental ability does not give the whole picture. There is a link between cognitive and emotional intelligence, each being important contributors to modern organisations. Cognitive intelligence (CI) has traditionally been the indicator of successful job performance (Bosco, Nathan, Allen, 2012). Organisational psychology uses cognitive ability to predict workplace success (Neisser et  al., 1996). Cognitive intelligence can be generally defined as academic ability, IQ or general mental ability, including the ability to critically think and reason logically, to analyse and problem solve, as well as individual aptitude in reading and writing (Sternberg, 2006). CI is a valuable asset in employees, particularly in some specialist fields where critical thinking, logic and reason are required, occupations such as scientific researchers, accountants, economists etc. The capacity of all workers to engage cognitive intelligence in quick and effective decision making serves as an important basis for achieving successful outcomes in the most workplaces. Patton (2003) found a consequence of the developing business climate is the global economy and the Internet, each necessitating an increased speed of communications in business transactions. Decisive leaders are forced to make timely decisions without consult and all the data on hand, such an environment necessitates in the need for higher levels of general mental ability in order to achieve both increased levels and faster acquisition of job knowledge, thus leading to greater levels of job performance (Schmidt Hunter, 2004). CEO of Southwest Organisational Behaviour Assessment 1 Airlines, James Patton, displayed the importance of quick and effective decision making when facing a crisis on September 11, 2001. When planes where grounded and millions of passengers stranded, Patton decided that customers and staff would come first. No employees were required to stand down or take pay cuts, and passengers were given hassle free refunds, furthermore, Southwest employees were encouraged to take passengers to a movie or bowling to pass the time while awaiting news. In the aftermath of 9/11, while most airlines were reducing their workforces by 20% Southwest announced a $179.8 million profit sharing program for employees and managed to retain all staff (Gittell et el, 2006). Other examples of CI are literacy skills, such as reading and writing which are major tools of modern day  businesses: emails, documents and various other item of paperwork require high levels of accuracy for effective communication, efficiency on computers and an ability to learn new technolog y is important in this information world. McKenney, Copeland, Copeland and Mason (1995) propose that the revolution in communications and information technology should be considered as a dominant force in recent social and economic change. Although CI is undeniably important in establishing an efficient workforce it is not the whole picture. The value of cognitive intelligence is irrefutable however some limitations apply. Validities of predicting outcomes in real life are low. According to Viswevaran and Ones (2002), general mental ability accounts for only 25% variance in work performance. Furthermore, they suggest that intelligent behaviour is more than just the result of what intelligence tests measure. A practical example of the limitations of cognitive intelligence can be referred back to the other airlines effected by the 9/11 crisis. While Southwest airlines triumphed against adversary other airlines suffered greatly. There is no denying that the CEO’s of these struggling airlines were people of high cognitive intelligence, however, this personal asset alone was not enough to avoid financial losses, perhaps other ingredients such  as emotional intelligence and adequate policies are still required in order to retain consumer trust. Other CI limitations include measurement, particularly IQ testing which ma y result in adverse impact against minorities (Viswesvaran Ones, 2002). Tests presented in a language other than an individual’s primary language as well as differing cultural approaches make the result of such tests weighted in favour of the culture that produced it. High IQ does not guarantee adequate function in the  workplace. Highly gifted people are often underestimated and misunderstood by peers and society (Nauta Corten, 2002). They may make ineffective leaders as staff may not appreciate their intensity, perfectionism, questioning, and being â€Å"too smart† Heylighten (n.d.). Furthermore, CI does not guarantee a good team player. Elkin and Burke (2008) report Steve Jobs, while an example of a successful individual with extremely high cognitive intelligence, is reputed to have been a tyrant to work for. Critics claim he took credit for ideas that were not his, was not a team player, and was impatient, domineering and obsessive, behaviour which is inducing of high staff turnover or low employee retention rates. They also suggest Jobs strengths such as vision, magnetic charisma, perfectionism, all drove him to be a great CEO but are also the same drives that placed his company, staff and investors at risk. Highly intelligent individuals may have issues with delegation, trust, admitting error or asking for help. When compared to autonomous work, good teamwork enables tasks to be accomplished faster and more efficiently, reduces workloads, work pressure and improves staff relations (Kelly, 2004). Some highly intelligent people, such as those with Asperger’s Syndrome, may have low social skills. Individuals with Aspergers may test very highly on a CI tests but often their communication with others is blunt, awkward, stilted or odd (Shea, 2009). Saaty (1999) suggests that primary language expresses affections rather than ideas or thoughts. An inability to effectively communicate with consumers may result in difficult social relationships. While CI is indeed an important consideration in e mployee ability it is not a stand-alone measure of success. Emotional Intelligence (EI) is increasingly being viewed as having a significant influence on job performance and effective leadership in the workforce. A commonly referred to definition of EI was given by Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1999) â€Å"Emotional intelligence refers to an ability to  recognise the meanings of emotions and their relationships and to reason and problem solve on the basis of them. Emotional intelligence is involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings, understand the information of those emotions and manage them† (p. 267). EI reflects one’s capacity to cope with daily challenges and may assist in predicting both personal and professional success in life. Assets in any working relationship include social awareness, social networking, relationship management, self-awareness and self-management. While small business has long relied on understanding the importance of social networking and keeping healthy relations hips and positive reputation in their community, new technology, globalization and social media now take social awareness and social networking to a whole new level. According to Qualman (2009) global connectivity now results in both positive and negative messages regarding products and services becoming immediately, permanently and easily accessible to the whole world. EI is a valuable asset in employees, particularly in some specialist fields where charisma and empathy are required, such as, sales and marketing, counselling or nursing. Effective leaders, as part of their role in managing relationships, should embody competent levels of respect, empathy, courtesy, motivation and be able to inspire others. The importance of empathy can be illustrated by an American business called Toro who manufacture commercial lawn equipment. The nature of the product results in around 100 serious injuries annually, prior to the appointment of CEO Ken Melrose, Toro faced an average of 50 law suits per year, resulting in massive financial losses to the company. However, Melrose added empathy. Injured workers and their families where meet by company representativ es, sympathies where expressed, investigations made and any needs were meet at the onset. This change in policy has reduced the number of lawsuits from an  average of 50 per year to only one since 1991 when the policy was introduced (Rainey, Chan Begin, 2008). Furthermore, leaders need teams who are energetic, innovative, creative and passionate (Sloane, 2007). Understanding individual drives and motivations enables management to get the best results from their team. Effective management must be self-aware and have the ability to self-manage, including being aware of and managing moods, adapt appropriate emotions and behaviours to appropriate situations. Jack Welsh, Chairman of General Electric states that A leaders intelligence must have a strong emotional component. He has to have high levels of self-awareness, maturity and self-control.’ (as cited in Balakrishanan Mouli, 2011, p. 44). EI allows managers to get the best out of their employees. Perks (2007) advises that successful leaders are high in emotional intelligence; they maintain positive working relat ionships and employ adequate coping strategies in all areas of life. Leaders, ideally, should possess emotional intelligence to encourage the best of their team. Emotional intelligence, however, has its limitations. Cherniss (2010) even suggests that EI has produced the highest level of controversy in the social sciences of recent years. More clarity in regard to theory is required. Roberts, Matthews and Zeinder (2010) propose that EI models do not adequately address theory. Furthermore, Roberts suggests that emotional intelligence definitions lack clarity and questions the criterion of which qualities should belong under the banner of emotional intelligence. It seems necessary to adopt one clear common definition. Measures of EI are currently underdeveloped in this relatively new field, more research and the creation of better measures may improve construct validity (Cherniss, 2010). This may result in the development of greater understanding and respect for the field. There is no guarantee that a person high in EI, will use this asset in a positive manner. Individuals with high emotional intelligence may manipulate people or situations for personal gain. Saaty (2001) suggests that decisions are not always based on the greatest idea  but on a person’s ability to persuade others to accept the idea. More exploration and clarification is required to address some of the limitations of emotional intelligence. Modern organisations face fundamentally different problems from those of the in the past, globalization, increases in technology and staff turnover are just some of the issues being confronted. The belief has been held for around a century that higher intelligence in individuals is more valued due to their higher task performance (Viswesvaran Ones, 2002). Modern organisations provide services, and are organised according to a blend of individual’s, information and communication technology, social capital and recognized talents (Schoemaker Jonkers, 2005). The measuring of CI enables modern organisations an affordable and speedy way of evaluating an employee’s general mental ability. General mental ability has been related to occupational level on both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (Schmidt Hunter, 2004). CI measures allow employers to apply specific cognitive abilities to valid and appropriate positions within the business with a view to discovering the bes t person for the job. According to Holloway (2003) employing the â€Å"right person for the job† or job fit is more essential now than ever. Job fit can be described as â€Å"the degree to which a person’s cognitive abilities, interests and personality dynamics fit those required for the job† (Russell, 2003, p.27). This is where the importance of emotional intelligences comes into play. A constant balance between understanding the individual drives and motivations of workers and ensuring staff remain engaged, enthusiastic and valued has many rewards for modern organisations. Incorporating a balance between both intelligences gives employees the greatest chance of achieving appropriate job fit. Holloway (2003) states that positive job fit, results in increased job satisfaction, increased productivity and reduced staff turnover. Furthermore, research by O’Reilly, Chatman and Caldwell (1991) suggests newly hired staff whose with values that fit in with the culture of the organisation tend to adjust quicker, remain longer with the company and are overall more satisfied. While Hollaway,  (2003) states th at understanding of workers in regards to work/life balance, personal goals and drives may encourage loyalty reducing turnover, saving on retraining and downtime. Furthermore, EI combined with CI addresses the gaps between management and workers through understanding of positive leading by example management that can result in emulation by employees resulting in a ripple effect throughout the organisation. There is a strong link between emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence and the combination of both intelligences has become necessary for successful business relations in modern organisations. Cognitive intelligence and emotional intelligence are each important factors in regard to individual differences in the field of organisational behaviour in modern organisations. While general mental ability accounts for many valuable employee assets such as efficiencies in regard to knowledge acquisition and technological aptitude, limitations to validity and measurement of testing and relevance mean that cognitive intelligence is not the only measure of a successful employee. Emotional intelligence also plays a key role in individual success in modern organisations. Effective leadership, self- awareness, social networking, empathy, self-management are all are assets of the emotionally intelligent. Modern organisations benefit from the combination of both intelligences by finding the best fit for the position resulting in higher job satisfaction, higher retention of staff and greater profits. References Balakrishanan, L., Mouli, S. (2011). Emotional Intelligence – A Key for Effective Employee Management. Amet Journal of Management,1(1),44. Retrieved from http://www.ametjournal.com/attachment/Amet-journal.pdf Bosco, F. A., Nathan, B., Allen, D. G. (2012, July). Higher validity and less adverse impact! Using â€Å"Executive Attention† to measure cognitive ability. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Personnel Assessment Council, Las Vegas, NV. Cherniss, C. (2010). Emotional intelligence: Toward clarification of a concept. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3(2), 110-126. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01231.x Elkind, P., Burke, D. (2008). The trouble with Steve. Fortune, 157, 54-63. Retrieved from http://personal.bellevuecollege.edu/llum/GBUS101/09WSteveJobs.pdf Gittell, J. H., Cameron, K., Lim, S., Rivas, V. (2006). Relationships, layoffs, and organizational resilience airline industry responses to September 11. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 42(3), 300-329. doi:10.1177/0021886306286466 Heylighen, F. (n.d.). Gifted People and their Problems. Retrieved from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/GiftedProblems.pdf Higgins, D. M., Peterson, J. B., Pihl, R. O., Lee, A. G. (2007). Prefrontal cognitive ability, intelligence, Big Five personality, and the prediction of advanced academic and workplace performance. Journal of personality and social psychology, 93(2), 298. doi:10.1037/00223514.93.2.298 Holloway, P. (2003). Job Fitness Series: The Right Person for the Job. AboutPeople. Retrieved from http://www.aboutpeople.com/PDFFiles/The%20Right%20Person%20For%20the%20Job.pdf Kelly, B., (2014). Importance of Teamwork in Organizations, Demand Media retrieved March 8, 2014. Retrieved from http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/importance-teamworkorganizations-12033.html McKenney, J. L., Copeland, D. C., Copeland, D. G., Mason, R. O. (1995).Waves of change: Business evolution through information technology. Harvard Business Press. Boston, USA. doi: 10.1080/08109029608632025 Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27(4), 267-298. doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00016-1 Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review Psychology, 59(1), 507-536. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646 Nauta, N. Corten, F. (2002) Tijdschrift voor Bedrijfs- en Verzekeringsgeneeskunde Journal for Occupational and Insurance Physicians, 10(11), 332-335. doi:10.1007/12498.1876-5858 Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American psychologist, 51(2), 77. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 OReilly, C. A., Chatman, J., Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of management journal, 34(3), 487-516. doi: 10.2307/256404 Patton, J. R. (2003). Intuition in decisions. Management Decision, 41(10), 989-996. doi:10.1108/00251740310509517 Perks, J. (2007, September). The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Business. Computer Weekly.com retrieved from http://www.computerweekly.com/news/2240082956/The-role-of-emotionalintelligence-in-business Qualman, E. (2009). Socialnomics: How Social Media Transforms the Way we Live and do Business. Hoboken, USA. John Wiley Sons. doi:10.5860/CHOICE.48-1576 Rainey, M. B., Chan, K., Begin, J. (2008). Characterized by conciliation: Heres how business can use apology to diffuse litigation. Alternatives to the High Cost of Litigation, 26(7), 131-134. doi: 10.1002/alt.20237 Roberts, R. D., Matthews, G., Zeinder, M. (2010). Emotional Intelligence: Muddling Through Theory and Measurement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3, 140-144. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01214.x Russell, C. (2003). Right Person, Right Job: Guess or KnowThe Breakthrough Technologies of Performance Information, (2nd ed.). Amherst, USA. HRD Press Inc. Saaty, T. L. (2001). Decision Making for Leaders: the Analytic Hierarchy Process for Decisions in a Complex World (2nd ed.). Pittsburgh, USA. RWS publications. doi: 10.1080/00137918308967693 Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. (2004). General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 162173. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162 Schoemaker, M., Jonker, J. (2005). Managing Intangible Assets: An Essay on Organising Contemporary Organisations Based upon Identity, Competencies and Networks. Journal of Management Development, 24(6), 506-518. doi: 10.1108/02621710510600964 Shea, S.(2009). Capstone: Communications Difficulties Among Individuals With and Without Aspergers Syndrome. Retrieved from: http://www.asdjobsink.com/CommunicationDifficulties.pdf Sloane, P. (2007). The Innovative Leader: How to Inspire Your Team and Drive Creativity. Philadelphia, USA. Kogan Page Publishers. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=fb1vXOzjIBYCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge _summary_rcad=0#v=onepageqf=false Sternberg, R. J. 2006. Intelligence. Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. doi: 10.1002/0470018860.s00555 Viswesvaran, C. Ones, D. S. (2002). Agreements and Disagreements on the Role of General Mental Ability (GMA) in Industrial, Work, and Organizational Psychology. Human Performance, 15(1/2), 211-231. doi:10.1207/s15327043hup150102_13

The Suicide Rate In Men

The Suicide Rate In Men Suicide Rate Men The suicide rate for young men is much higher than for young women in western developed countries. Discuss with reference to gender and competing explanations of suicide. For many, a rational response in life is to fear death after all life is our most personal and valuable asset, and it is not surprising that a copious amount of research has been devoted to suicide. The functionalist Emile Durkheim was the first to put forth the study of suicide in a serious attempt to establish empiricism in sociology, believing what is traditionally regarded as the most individual of all acts to still be open to sociological investigation. Before attempting to discuss the question at hand it may seem obvious, however, necessary to define what is meant by suicide. According to Durkheim â€Å"the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result. This definition is used to separate true suicides from accidental deaths ( Durkheim 1897 quoted in Thompson 1982:110).Suicide is a problem of considerable magnitude and is recognised as one of the main causes of premature mortality in young adults in western developed countries. In the United Kingdom alone there were 5554 suicides in adults aged 15 and over in 2006, according to the national statistics this represented almost one percent of the total of all deaths at ages 15 and over. Gender differences in suicide rates become apparent when presented with data stating three quarters of the above 5554 suicides were by men and the highest rates were among the 15-44 age group (office for national statistics, 2006). Other research shows that for those males in the 15-34 age group suicide is the second most common cause of death (Charlton et al.,1992)2* Of all that is known about the phenomenon of suicide it is a general consensus that gender is a major factor in differential suicide rates, the main issue concerning this essay. Although Durkheim wrote little about gender differences in suicide; primarily due to his claim that ‘women are not imaginative enough and intellectually complex enough to kill themselves’ ( a statement seriously lacking any empirical support) (Durkheim 1897 quoted in Maris 2000) it is important to note that he did lay the ground work for research to come. This essay will discuss the competing explanations of gender differences in suicide, specifically the statistical findings that the suicide rate for young men is much higher than for young women in western developed countries. The first explanation that will be put forth is that the gender socialisation of males increases the likelihood of male suicide completion compared to that of women. This explanation will be discussed in relation to differences in help seeking behaviour, differences in choice of method and the relationship between alcohol/drug abuse and suicide in men. Following this, a further explanation to be analyzed is that of the ‘masculinity crises’ and its part to play in the alarming rate of male suicides. Although the above will be presented as explanations for the title under discussion, all explanations put forth will be approached with caution and appropriately analyzed and evaluated. Finally having suggested explanations, I will question the methodology used in the study of suicide and whether this contributes to what may appear to be higher male suicide rates. In effect, do men really commit more suicide or is this simply based on unreliable data collection? Socialisation and the social construction of gender are highly relevant in explaining the higher suicide rate in men. It is important to firstly explain what is meant by gender and to distinguish its meaning from sex. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between ‘males’ and ‘females’ which includes a variation in hormones, chromosomes and genitals, Gender however, refers to the cultural classification of people as either ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’. Many sociologists argue that gender is socially constructed through socialisation. Ann Oakley for example saw gender role socialisation taking place through manipulation, such as the dressing of girls in pink pretty clothing, through verbal appellations in telling boys only girls cry, through canalization for example directing boys toward more aggressive toys and girls toward dolls, finally by exposing boys and girls to different activities for example directing girls towards the more domestic tasks ( Oakley, 1972) *3. In short it is thought that male socialisation in many respects increases the likelihood of suicide. Goldberg (1997) states that the socialisation of men in this way has created a ‘prescription for suicide’, through reinforcing the stereotype of masculinity permission is given to men to be inexpressive and more violent a combination which inevitably increase the risk of completed suicide. This notion can be used to explain why it is that although mental illness is more prevalent among women than men, men commit more suicide. Depression specifically is regarded as one of the major risk factors for suicide mortality, around 30% of those who have committed suicide are reported to have suffered from depression (Bertolote et al, 2004)*5. It seems strange that although women display higher rates of mental illness than men (Foster 1995) 9* more men opt to take their own lives. It is argued that as a consequence of women’s learned gender roles they are more likely to seek professional help when experiencing problems which may lead to suicidal thoughts. Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend state that: Sex differences in the seeking of help correspond to attitudinal differences: women are more likely to admit distress . . . to define their problems in mental-health terms . . . and to have favourable attitudes towards psychiatric treatment. (Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend 1977: 1338) 6* Men on the other hand are encouraged from infancy to ‘tough it out’, to be silent and strong and to display independence and self reliance, consequently it is less socially acceptable for men to ask for help. This underlying social unacceptability results in mens reluctance to disclose suicidal thoughts and to discuss general emotional problems. The suicide in Avon study found that in the 4 weeks before death 80 per cent of men who had committed suicide had in fact had no contact with professional help, be it a GP or any other form of support organisation (Vassilas and Morgan1997) 7*. It appears that gender socialisation to some extent contributes to the comparatively higher rate of male suicide completion. It should also be noted that stereotypical gender norms means women are more likely to be labelled as mentally ill. Some feminists argue that cultural sexism, coupled with specific sexism from professionals, makes women more susceptible to psychiatric labelling. Furthermore women are labelled as mentally ill whether they conform to the female gender stereotype or whether they reject them (Chelter 1972:115) 8*. In this way the health service maybe deemed patriarchal and misogynistic, however, this increased likelihood of women being labelled mentally ill means help is quicker to be provided and suicidal thinking is quicker to be recognized in women in comparison to men. Another way traditional male socialisation maybe partly to blame for the higher male suicide rate is in one’s choice of suicide method. Gender differences in the choice of suicide method have consistently been found, it is argued that the traditional male role is consistent with more aggressive thus more successful methods of suicides. Women tend to use methods of lower lethality than men, favouring poisons such as the deliberate overdose of pharmaceutical medication, this accounted for 26% of female suicides in 1996 compared to only 6% in males. Men however use more violent methods such as firearms which accounted for 63% of male deaths in 1996 and hanging which accounted for 17% of all male suicides (Maris et al, 2000). Canetto and Sakinofsky (1998) have stated that in western society suicide completion appears to be more socially acceptable for men whereas a failed suicide attempt is deemed emasculating this in part has contributed to higher successful suicides in men in order to avoid the ridicule of their masculinity. The conventional Gender socialisation of men thus makes them more vulnerable to suicide completion, this may also explain why it is thought that women attempt more suicide than men yet more men die. To critique the above claim one could argue that the choice of method is more complex than gender socialisation; it may have more to do with the availability of certain methods. In countries where there is greater access to firearms due to looser restrictions there is a higher use of that method in the attempting suicide. Nevertheless, one could still maintain that in western developed countries due to the adherence to female norms women are less likely to have access to guns and feel more comfortable with their use, resulting in an increase use of other methods such as prescription drugs. Some have argued that the choice of method is far more complex than what has just been suggested; even if men and women opt for the same method (the method is held constant) men are still more likely to die. A study by Shneidman and Farberow (1957, cited in Lester and Lester 1971:88-90) of suicidal behaviour in Los Angeles found that out of 24 men who chose to jump from high places in an attempt to kill themselves 16 succeeded, this was compared with only 9 out of 20 women who succeeded by using the same method. Further to this, an article titled ‘values destroyed by death’ noted that women are socialised more so than men to be more concerned with their physical appearance and this may even extend to their appearance after death. This may therefore influence their choice of suicide method, opting more for a method that would be less disfiguring, such methods are also more likely to be less lethal (Diggory and Rothman 1961 cited in Lester and Lester 1971:90). This notion that women have a concern with their physical appearance even after death seems far fetch, nevertheless, many do hold a consensus that gender socialisation certainly does play its part in the choice of suicide method which manifests itself in higher male suicide completion. The relationship between Alcohol and substance abuse and suicidal behaviour has long been recognized. Alcohol and drugs can affect a person’s ability to reason, their judgment and can act as a depressant. This increased depression over time and decreased inhibition makes a person vulnerable to attempting suicide especially with a history of mental illness. According to research men are nine times more likely to abuse alcohol than women, and those men who are diagnosed as alcoholics are assigned a six times increase likelihood of suicide compared to the general population.( Harris et al ,1997) 12*. Once again this may be partly due to the notion that male gender socialisation results in men responding to stress and problems through distracting themselves by use of alcohol or drugs as this is more socially acceptable, in contrast women are more likely to talk about their problems as shown above. In western society a man’s masculinity also renders itself open in measurement in relation to how much alcohol he can consume. All this in turn affects and increases the likelihood of suicidal thinking. However other studies such as that by Rossow (1993 cited in Maris et al 2000:358) 13* in Norway between 1911 and 1990 found that there was a positive relationship between alcohol and suicide in men but not for women. A similar outcome was found by Makela (1996 cited in Maris et al 2000:358) 14* in Finland. This shows that alcohol alone is not sufficient to be labelled an increase cause of suicide in all cases; the matter is complex in nature and requires a deeper understanding of its direct and relational affects in men. Although all above explanations contribute some blame to traditional male socialisation it is important to note that many others argue that the differences between the two sexes are predominantly biological not social. They have claimed that higher amounts of testosterone and other androgens in males make them more aggressive and because suicide is considered to be violence or aggression turned toward one self it seems men are more biologically likely to take their own lives. Studies of brain biochemistry specifically of serotonin metabolite CSF 5-HIAA (cerebrospinal fluid levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic) and its relationship to suicide specifically to violent suicide has shown that male suicidal subject have lower CSF 5-HIAA and account for the majority of violent suicides. Maris et al (2000) suggested that gender based biochemical differences may play a part in different suicidal behaviour. Although from a sociological perspective one can not agree with the extreme view that biology is largely to blame for differences in suicide among men and women, it seems reasonable to speculate that it may have some part to play even if one is to conclude suicide to be a social phenomenon. Another explanation that many sociologists have pointed to in explaining the alarming rate of young male suicides is the notion of a ‘masculinity crisis’. society has changed dramatically over the last thirty or so years, the western world has become less patriarchal as gender equality becomes more the norm. Roles, in both the work place and at home are not as gender defined as they once were and it is now not uncommon to see men stay at home as househusbands whilst their wives go out to work in high paid employment. Platt and Hawton’s systematic review (2000) 20* shows a strong relationship between unemployment and suicide especially in men. If taking the UK as a prime example then it is clear that there has been a move away from heavy industries that have traditionally been seen as ‘masculine’ and a move towards more service and information sectors which are traditionally viewed as feminine jobs. This has brought about many opportunities for women but at the same time has resulted in higher unemployment rates for men. The breadwinner mentality is still strong in the western world and not being able to provide for ones family is a major worry for many males, and to have been able to do so at one point but not anymore can have a devastating affect. In a materialistic capitalist society, like those to be found in the Western World, material goods are symbols of wealth and prestige and if one is not able to provide them anymore, they can begin to see themselves as worthless. Arthur Britain ( 1989) *28 and Susan Faludi (1999) 27*, among many other sociologists often argue that men are experiencing more confusion they are not coping with the consequences of changes in the gender order. The rise of feminist movements, the decline of heavy manual work as well as gay and black politics brought about a collapse of the legitimacy of patriarchal power. This can therefore be seen as a positive for many women increasing their independence as they no longer become soley reliant on their husbands for money. Men however have traditionally based their identity on their work and had a safe position as the head of the family as the breadwinner this gave then comfort and a sense of place, changes that upset this are seen to have a negative effect on men leaving them uncertain about their position in general. They can no longer guarantee holding the highest power in their working lives whiles at home there is no certainty that they will be the breadwinner. Consequently there is a split between retributive man, those who assert traditional masculinity and the new man, these men don’t rigidly hold the traditional masculine stereotype and are regarded as more emotional and more concerned with their body image. Those who maintain the traditional masculine identity, the breadwinner and head of household mentality find themselves in conflict with the changes in the gender social order, their position can lead to isolation and aggression, two emotions very much associated with suicide. On the other hand those who have adapted to these changes are less confused of their position and are less prone to suicide than the former. It could however be that the new man may be in part a media myth and the existence of the myth has created further uncertainty amongst males about how best to be a man. It should also be noted that this notion of masculinity being in crisis is controversial as although the breakdown of such rigid stereotypes has had a negative effect on those who would have found solace and comfort in being the dominant figure it has had an equally positive affect on males who have found themselves in the past to be subordinate and exploited such as homosexuals. There are also many men who have adapted happily and suffer no confusion as well as many who have maintained their position as the breadwinner. Others such as Kimmel (1987)15* have noted that as evident in historical research this alarming concern over the role of man is by no means a new occurrence, in this sense caution should be taken not treat it as so, as it becomes easier to associate and in part blame the rise in young male suicide with what may initially seem as a new crisis in men. It should also be maintained that although there is much debate over this ‘masculinity crisis’ and the breakdown of gender roles many feminists believe that western society is still patriarchal and the exploitation of women is still present. In 1991 6.53 million women earned less than two thirds of median male earnings, were mostly engaged in part time work and comprised 65% of all low paid workers (Oppenheim,1993)29*. Although such figures have improved in the last 17 years, progress has not been so drastic to warrant labelling the west as having broken-down patriarchal power. Some scholars particularly feminists have gone further and rejected the idea that a crisis in masculinity could even exists pointing to evidence like the above. Irene Bruegel’s (2000) 16* a feminist economist presents a sceptical account of the feminisation of the work force, she like many others is cynical that men are hard done by and maintains that women can still be seen to be the subordinate class. The sociologist John Maclnnes (1998) 17* presents a more extreme view on the matter stating that ‘masculinity’ does not exist as the property, character trait or aspect of identity of individuals, as a result any theory that relates a ‘crisis in masculinity’ in its explanation such as that used by many sociologists to explain the higher suicide rate in males must be equally flawed. Another critical point to make regarding this so called ‘masculinity crisis’ is that it may be right that men have lost some power but it is wrong to see this power as a loss in relation to women, the collapse of the predominantly male employment industry may be more to blame. It could therefore be suggested that this so called crisis may not be one of masculinity but one of the working class. If we are to acknowledge the existence of a ‘masculinity crisis’ then it is evident that this problem in masculinity is far more complicated and sophisticated than one may initially think, it seems strange that we talk of a crisis in masculinity but there is no such crisis in femininity considering the gender roles for both sexes have in part broken down. The relationship between a masculinity crisis and suicide can appear to be a direct one but as it only affects such a small proportion of males, there must be other underlying factors which combine with this feeling to have such an immensely negative effect on ones life. All these explanations can go some way to piecing together why exactly suicide is more common in males. Yet, because, they offer an opinion and evidence to back it up, does not mean they should be taken as definite arguments. The relationship between gender and suicide is complex as although the most consistent findings in sociology are sexual differences there are other important variants within these male, female based differences. Racial variations in gender differences are evident in many statistics, according to Maris et al (2000:149) in 1996 white males comprised 73% of all completed suicides, yet the ratio of male to female suicide is larger among blacks with 6:1 compared to 4.3:1 among whites. It also appears that white females are far more likely to commit suicide than black females. Although this essay is specifically focused on the western world there are still variations within these different countries nevertheless the male suicide rate is consistently greater than that of females in most societies. An exception worth noting (although not part of the western world) is the People’s Republic of China where the suicide rate among women is far greater than among the men (Shiang 1998 cited in Maris et al 2000:148)18*. Sexual orientation is also a variant found in male and female differences in suicide. Some epidemiologists have found that homosexuals are at a higher risk of suicide, this is due to negative experiences they may encounter that are linked to their sexuality. It is however gay and bisexual men that have been found to be at an increased risk of suicide as lesbian and bisexual women in such situations seem to report a desire to hurt themselves while gay and bisexual men have a greater desire to want to die (D’Augelli et al, 2001)21* However it is difficult to know the true risk of suicide for gay or bisexual men as sexual orientation is not recorded at the registration of death and due to stigma still attached to gay men that strongly conflicts with the traditional identity of a masculine man, same sex relationships are not necessarily made public (Remafedi et al,1998) 19* To further evaluate the title itself it is important to mention the many methodological issues in the study of suicide, some of which may even lead one to question whether the statement under discussion is simply based on unreliable and problematic research. Firstly, most research on gender differences in suicide are based on official statistics which like any other statistics are socially constructed. Whether a sudden death is classified as a suicide is ultimately the coroner’s decision who is generally influenced by other people. The relatives and friends of the deceased might persuade the coroner not to record the death as a suicide (Douglas,1967) 25*. Due to this J.Maxwell Atkinson (1978) 26* states that when positivists study suicide what they uncover are simply the commonsense theories of coroners for example their increased tendency to record the deaths of lonely people as suicides. Further to this in having argued that there are sex differences in the social acceptability of suicide there may also be sex differences in the willingness to record any death as a suicide. The high rate of male suicides may be due to the fact that suicide is more socially acceptable for males and so more coroners are willing to classify them as such. Canetto (1992-3)22* suggests that our stereotypical views that ‘she died for love and he for glory’ also affects a coroner’s and societies interpretation of the reasons for suicidal behaviour, with women more likely to of committed suicide due to problems in their personal relationships, stress and mental illness whereas men do so because of threats to their public persona. Another problem which may affect the gender differences in suicide statistics are the method a person may choose in taking their own life. It may be the case that some methods are more likely to lead to a classification of suicide. Platt et al (1988,220) 23* conducted research on suicides in Edinburgh between 1968 and 1983 and found that ‘suicide and undetermined deaths could not be differentiated by gender, marital status, previous psychiatric contact, age or social class’ the only important factor was method, with those opting for more severe active methods such as firearms or hanging being much more likely to be classified as suicides than those choosing passive methods such overdoses or poisoning. In this sense because active methods are more likely to be used by men, men appear to have a higher rate of suicide yet this may simply be because the methods they use are more likely to be classified as such. Another problem with suicide statistics is that they tend to ignore attempted suicide and concentrate on the cases in which death occurs, has this created a moral panic in men as they appear to have higher rates of completed suicides? It could be argued that the very focus on the higher male suicide rate detracts from the fact that suicide attempts are much higher in women. On average the rate of female attempted suicide is 1.5 times higher than those for men with the highest rate found in those aged 15-24 (Hawton and Heeringen, 2000, 55-56) ADD IN BIB. It could therefore be suggested that although suicide completion is much higher in men an equal focus should be assigned to the higher female attempted suicide rate, one should not mask or detract from the other. In this way it becomes more appropriate to describe suicidal behaviour as a problem of both young males and young females. One should however, take caution not to confuse self-harm with suicide attempts as some mental health professionals often use the terms interchangeably (Favazza and Rosenthal 1993 cited in Duffy and Ryan 2004)30*. An attempted suicide is the direct intent to ends one’s life, self harm is not. Suicide statistics can be affected in this way; it may be the case that the lack of differentiation between the two terms has lead to an overrepresentation of attempted suicides, this is of course a speculation and further research is required to discover the extent to which this is true. It is evident that suicide; as a sociological subject is a complex phenomenon to study and this is not helped by its many ethical dilemmas. Suicide is not something which many would be comfortable talking about with a reporter or filling in a questionnaire beforehand if they were feeling such a way and even after, if relatives or friends were to give their opinions on why the event occurred, there would be a strong tendency for bias- to either protect the deceased or to offer what they believed was the real reason. If we are to accept that males are more likely to cover up their emotions, then suicide is likely to be less expected and therefore the answer to the questions regarding why, are more difficult to come by. Such ethical problems have lead to the consensus that suicide is grossly underreported and thus underestimated in official statistics. However, there has been some improvement in the gathering of statistical information and it is this that leads one to question whether changes in suicide rates such as the increasing male suicide rate is due to changes in suicide statistics not in the actual changes in suicide rates (Kelleher 1996) 31*. In considering future research, it is important to mention that although there is an impressive body of quantitative research, this is not always the best method to use when in cases such as suicide and gender comparisons. Statistics highlight the facts; that males do commit suicide more than females. In such a subject, however, a deeper analysis is needed to explain why exactly this is and why although the figures evidently show males to kill themselves more, the reasoning’s behind this might not be at all dominated by gender based assumptions. There is a need for more qualitative based research, such as individual case studies which will give a different angle and deeper insight into suicide. However, it is essential that care should taken not to compare men and women as though the two groups are homogeneous a flaw found in a lot of existing studies. It is therefore imperative to emphasize that not all men are the same what may be the case for one man may not apply to another, there is a diversity of masculinity and femininity and generalizations should be avoided. In conclusion sociologists have debated greatly over why exactly suicide is more common in males than in females. In this essay it has been suggested that the socialisation of males in western society is partly to blame. Through the reinforcement of what society deems acceptable male behaviour men are less likely to ask for help professional or otherwise when experiencing suicidal thoughts or any illness which may lead to an increased likelihood of attempting suicide. Conventional Gender socialisation of males is also consistent with more aggressive thus more successful methods of completed suicides. As stated above in western society suicide completion appears to be more socially acceptable for men whereas a failed suicide attempt is deemed emasculating. Alcohol and drug misuse also appears to have a stronger relationship with the socially constructed notion of ‘masculinity’, because the abuse of such substances is closely linked to suicide, men are thus more vulnerable to the taking of their own lives. The idea of a ‘masculinity crisis’ was also presented as a contributing factor to the higher male suicide rate. Sociologists have suggested that society is now at odds with the basis of masculinity, with the partial break down in the roles of both men and women, men appear to be confused and more likely to commit suicide. It has however been strongly emphasised that all explanations that have been presented are simply suggestions to shed light on why young men appear to commit more suicide than young women in the western world, they are not definite reasons for the differences in the suicide rates between the two sexes. Many males are subjected to western gender role socialisation or feel a lack of role in society but the percentage of those who commit suicide are so small that it suggests that there must be other factors or a combination of reasons for them to do so. It is on the whole difficult to make generalizations when the ultimate cause of suicide, even in cases where the event is likely or a note is left because the defining factor remains hidden. Individual actions often require individual research and understanding but this proves immensely difficult in the use of statistics because quantitative data focuses on generalisations. Suicide statistics should therefore be approached with caution as in some cases they appear to show higher male suicide rates when this may not be the case. It should also be noted that suicide is for many a last resort. Although in some cases, death is the main intention; in many others it is often a cry for help- the intention is to live, to feel worthy and to highlight one’s pain and problems in the most extreme ways. Bibliography Thompson, Kenneth. 1982. Emile Durkheim. London: Tavistock Publications. Sources: Office for National Statistics, General Register Office for Scotland, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency) Lester G, Lester d (1971) Suicide The Gamble With Death. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,  Prentice-Hall

Divorce Rhtorical Analysis :: essays research papers fc

Most people, when thinking about divorce, worry about the impact that it has on the children that are involved. Even though children are most likely better off if totally incompatible parents separate instead of staying together, divorce is about loss and change, and it is still hard for children. Everyone knows that divorce has its effects on children. There are three different sources that try to explain these effects. Graham Blaine Jr. states that divorce is a threat to all children, whereas Rhona Mahony states that divorce is not always the cause of behavioral or academic problems in children coming from divorced families. Yvette Walczak and Sheila Burns state that the extent of the damage can be determined by the parents and their methods of explanation to the children.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Graham Blaine Jr. who is the Chief of Psychiatry at Harvard University health services writes a chapter in the book Explaining Divorce to Children. This chapter is entitled â€Å"The Effect of Divorce upon the Personality Development of Children and Youth.† He addresses this chapter to parents who are considering getting a divorce or are in the middle of the divorce process. The author uses a combination of Ethos and Pathos to support his theory on divorce. Blaine uses these strategies to highlight the mixed emotions a child may endure while going through such a confusing stage of their early lives. This then gives the audience a better understanding of the certain personalities children may gain while coping with sad situation of split parents. He also draws on his experience as a psychiatrist to give statistics as well as true stories to back up his reasoning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Blaine uses five specific guidelines for parents to follow in order to try and lessen the effect of divorce upon the child. These are: 1) Place children with whichever parent remarries unless there is a marked incompatibility between that parent and the child. 2) Children under twelve should not be sent to boarding school. 3) If children must be shuffled between two families, then one household should be established as home and the other as a place to visit. 4) Do not give children under twelve a choice regarding the parent with whom they are to live, and do not tell children about an impending divorce until definite plans for the future had been agreed upon. 5) Children should not be placed in a position where they serve as confidants or spies for one parent against the other.

The Trouble with Boys :: Personal Narrative, Autobiographical Essay

My sister asks me how I am. I tell her I’ve been unproductive, distracted, and irritable. Â   I've been in a place before where I really didn't care to be dating anyone at all, but when I'm in that place it's usually because my defenses have gone haywire and are slaughtering innocent passers-by. It's not a lot of fun, I gotta tell you. What I can't remember is whether it's more fun - or less not-fun - than what I'm feeling now. Â   I mean, he seemed like a nice guy. He loves his mother. He holds down a good job. He said just enough of the right things that I believed him. Clever boy. Â   So now I'm shuttling distractedly back and forth between feeling sorry for myself and feeling sorry for him - the first, because I've been here too goddamned many times already and why don't these boys ever hang around? and the second because, bless his little heart, he never even gave himself the chance to know just how wonderful I am. It's irritating. Â   What bothers me almost as much, though, are the friends who, when I'm cool with things and don't care whether I date anyone or not, warn me that I'll be alone forever if I don't let down my defenses and open up to the possibility of meeting Mister Wonderful, but when I'm all in a terrible state because the guy for whom I've finally let down my defenses seems to be dumping me, tell me I shouldn't care whether he wants to see me or not, because I'm allathat and a bag of chips anyway and I'll be fine on my own. Â   Seems like good advice: care enough but not too much, want to see him but not care whether he wants to see me, keep my defenses in check but up and running... but I have yet to figure out how to do all these things at once. And while I am fine on my own, I'd kinda like the opportunity to be fine with someone for a while. Â   I have a friend for whom this is not a problem. Her tactic, upon suspecting she's being ditched, which she would like me to emulate, is to put on her sassiest attitude and start dating someone else - preferably one of his friends.

Gawains Departure from the Peregrinatio :: Essays Papers

Gawain's Departure from the Peregrinatio The journey that Gawain takes from Arthur's court to Bertilak's castle, then to the Green Chapel, and back to Arthur's court clearly fits the pattern of a medieval peregrinatio. Writers of the Middle Ages used the peregrinatio or pilgrimage to describe spiritual progress through a worldly metaphor. The motif is used by Dante in the Divine Comedy (where the narrator, on his "journey through life," is diverted from the earthly world to a pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise); and Chaucer uses it in the movement of his pilgrimage from London to Canterbury. Dante's journey to Beatrice and Chaucer's from the sinful Tabard Inn to the tomb of St. Thomas Beckett a place where the pilgrims can receive absolution for their sins obviously represent spiritual as well as literal movements in the traditional peregrinatio. The Gawain-Poet, clearly familiar with the tradition of peregrinatio as we can see by his use of it in Pearl, uses it here not to demonstrate his hero's movement toward spiritual perfection (which was traditionally the aim of the itinerant), but rather to parody the notion of the possibility of such progress. Gawain is supposedly the purest of Arthur's knights, yet his preoccupation with Christian doctrine and with Mary (both shown in the device on his shield and inhis frequent Christian prayers) is undercut by his more urgent concerns retaining his life and his worldly reputation. In the Gawain-Poet' s handling of the peregrinatio motif, Gawain falls short of his reputation as a faultless knight and fails in the goal of his journey. Yet as he comes less to embody knightly ideals, he becomes more individual and finally can represent, if anything, only a picture of a solitary human being in a difficult world. In the disjunction between the conventions of the peregrinatio and the actual events of Gawain's journey is revealed a shift away from the pilgrimage fable towards realism, a movement also discernable (as Sacvan Bercovitch shows1) in the romance elements of the poem. It will be useful here to sketch briefly the traits and various ramifications of the peregrinatio motif in the Middle Ages. Though the motif was used literally, it was more often described in moral terms. Every man's life is a journey from birth to death, from the temptations of the world to one's symbolic reward, from a bodily to a spiritual existence, from sin to salvation (or damnation). Gawain's Departure from the Peregrinatio :: Essays Papers Gawain's Departure from the Peregrinatio The journey that Gawain takes from Arthur's court to Bertilak's castle, then to the Green Chapel, and back to Arthur's court clearly fits the pattern of a medieval peregrinatio. Writers of the Middle Ages used the peregrinatio or pilgrimage to describe spiritual progress through a worldly metaphor. The motif is used by Dante in the Divine Comedy (where the narrator, on his "journey through life," is diverted from the earthly world to a pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise); and Chaucer uses it in the movement of his pilgrimage from London to Canterbury. Dante's journey to Beatrice and Chaucer's from the sinful Tabard Inn to the tomb of St. Thomas Beckett a place where the pilgrims can receive absolution for their sins obviously represent spiritual as well as literal movements in the traditional peregrinatio. The Gawain-Poet, clearly familiar with the tradition of peregrinatio as we can see by his use of it in Pearl, uses it here not to demonstrate his hero's movement toward spiritual perfection (which was traditionally the aim of the itinerant), but rather to parody the notion of the possibility of such progress. Gawain is supposedly the purest of Arthur's knights, yet his preoccupation with Christian doctrine and with Mary (both shown in the device on his shield and inhis frequent Christian prayers) is undercut by his more urgent concerns retaining his life and his worldly reputation. In the Gawain-Poet' s handling of the peregrinatio motif, Gawain falls short of his reputation as a faultless knight and fails in the goal of his journey. Yet as he comes less to embody knightly ideals, he becomes more individual and finally can represent, if anything, only a picture of a solitary human being in a difficult world. In the disjunction between the conventions of the peregrinatio and the actual events of Gawain's journey is revealed a shift away from the pilgrimage fable towards realism, a movement also discernable (as Sacvan Bercovitch shows1) in the romance elements of the poem. It will be useful here to sketch briefly the traits and various ramifications of the peregrinatio motif in the Middle Ages. Though the motif was used literally, it was more often described in moral terms. Every man's life is a journey from birth to death, from the temptations of the world to one's symbolic reward, from a bodily to a spiritual existence, from sin to salvation (or damnation).